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Section A

Issues and Debates in Psychology

 

Answer all questions in this section.

 

1.) What is meant by androcentrism? [2 marks]

 

Model Answer

Androcentrism is a term based on when society tends to focus more on men and their opinions, experiences, and values. It often sees them as more important and ignores or downplays the perspectives of women. This can be seen in how people talk, what they think is normal, and how women may not have the same opportunities as men.

 

2.) Suggest two ways in which psychologists could avoid gender bias in their research. [2 marks]

 

Model Answer

To avoid gender bias in their research, psychologists can employ two effective strategies. Firstly, they can take a feminist perspective through the social constructionist approach. This means recognising that gender is not innate but is shaped by social and cultural factors. By understanding gender as a social construct, researchers can avoid reinforcing stereotypes and instead explore the diverse experiences and identities of individuals.

Secondly, psychologists can develop theories that acknowledge and highlight the differences between men and women, but also emphasise the value and strengths of women. This approach counters the historical tendency to prioritize male perspectives and attributes. By acknowledging and valuing the unique contributions and experiences of women, researchers can ensure a more balanced and inclusive understanding of gender dynamics.

 

3.)  Bob and Mike each have a daughter. Both girls are talented swimmers

Bob says his daughter was destined to be a good swimmer because her grandfather was a great swimmer when he was young Mike says it was inevitable that his daughter would be a good swimmer because she was given lots of praise in swimming lessons when she was little.

Use your knowledge of determinism to explain Bob's and Mike's comments. [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

Bob's comment reflects a deterministic viewpoint that attributes his daughter's talent in swimming to her family lineage. He believes that her genetic inheritance from her grandfather, who was a skilled swimmer, predetermined her abilities in the sport. This perspective aligns with biological determinism, which suggests that an individual's traits and capabilities are primarily shaped by their genetics and hereditary factors.

On the other hand, Mike's comment reflects a different form of determinism known as environmental determinism. He believes that his daughter's talent in swimming is the result of the environment and experiences she had during her swimming lessons, particularly the praise and encouragement she received. According to environmental determinism, a person's behaviour and abilities are primarily shaped by external influences and environmental factors.

 

4.) There are different levels of explanation in psychology, ranging from reductionism to holism.

 

Discuss levels of explanation in psychology. Refer to one or more topics in your answer. [16 marks]

 

Model Answer

Levels of explanation in psychology refer to the varying perspectives and approaches used to understand human behaviour and mental processes. These levels encompass reductionism and holism, which offer contrasting viewpoints on the complexity of psychological phenomena.

Reductionism is a level of explanation that focuses on breaking down complex phenomena into simpler, more fundamental components. It seeks to understand behaviour and cognition by examining underlying biological, cognitive, or neurological processes. For example, within the biological approach, reductionism may involve studying the influence of specific genes or neurotransmitters on behaviour, or investigating the neural mechanisms involved in perception.

On the other hand, holism emphasises the interconnectedness of various factors and the importance of understanding behaviour as a whole system. It considers the influence of social, cultural, and environmental factors in shaping human behaviour and mental processes. Holism recognises that individuals are embedded within a larger context, and that their thoughts, emotions, and actions are influenced by the complex interplay of multiple factors. The sociocultural approach, for instance, takes into account the impact of cultural norms, social relationships, and societal structures on behaviour and cognition.

When exploring specific topics in psychology, different levels of explanation can be applied. For instance, in studying anxiety disorders like phobias, reductionism may involve examining the underlying neural mechanisms and neurotransmitter imbalances associated with anxiety. This perspective could be informed by the biological approach. However, a holistic approach would consider additional factors such as environmental stressors, early life experiences, and social support networks, which may contribute to the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders. This perspective aligns with the sociocultural and cognitive approaches.

It is important to note that both reductionism and holism have their strengths and limitation. Reductionism has been a prominent approach in psychology, offering valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms and processes that contribute to human behaviour. By breaking down complex phenomena into simpler components, reductionism allows for a detailed understanding of specific aspects of psychology. For example, within the biological approach, reductionist explanations have helped uncover the role of neurotransmitters in mental disorders, leading to advancements in psychopharmacology and targeted treatments. Reductionism's emphasis on precise measurement and empirical evidence has contributed to the field's scientific rigor and the development of testable hypotheses.

However, reductionism has its limitations. One of the key criticisms is that it oversimplifies the complexity of human behaviour by focusing solely on lower-level explanations. By reducing behaviour to biological or cognitive processes, reductionism may neglect the broader contextual factors that shape human experience. This approach fails to capture the richness and intricacy of real-life situations, which are influenced by social, cultural, and environmental factors. Moreover, reductionist explanations can lead to deterministic views that ignore the role of individual agency and free will. Human behaviour is multifaceted and influenced by numerous interacting variables, and reductionism's narrow focus may overlook these complexities.

On the contrary, holism offers a valuable perspective in psychology by recognising the interconnectedness of various factors and the importance of understanding behaviour as a whole system. By considering the influence of social, cultural, and environmental factors, holism provides a more comprehensive understanding of human behaviour and mental processes. For example, the sociocultural approach highlights how cultural norms, social interactions, and societal structures shape individual behaviour and cognition. This broader perspective allows for the exploration of the rich diversity of human experiences and acknowledges the complex interactions between individuals and their environment.

However, holism also has its limitations. One criticism is that it can be challenging to empirically measure and quantify the intricate interplay of multiple factors. The complexity of holism makes it difficult to isolate specific variables and establish clear cause-and-effect relationships. This can hinder the development of precise and testable hypotheses, which are essential for scientific inquiry. Additionally, the emphasis on the context and individual differences within holism can make it challenging to generalise findings across different populations or settings. While holism provides a nuanced understanding of behaviour, its broad scope may lack the specificity necessary for practical applications or targeted interventions.

Another limitation of holism is the potential for overlooking the influence of underlying mechanisms and processes. By focusing on the whole system, holism may neglect the importance of understanding the underlying components and mechanisms that contribute to behaviour. Reductionist explanations can provide valuable insights into the biological, cognitive, or neural processes that underlie psychological phenomena. Without considering these lower-level explanations, holism may lack a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms driving human behaviour. While social and environmental factors are undoubtedly influential, ignoring the underlying processes may limit our ability to develop effective interventions or treatments for psychological disorders.

 

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Section B

Relationships or Gender or Cognition and development

 

Choose one topic from Section B. Answer all questions on the topic you choose.

 

Topic: Relationships

5.) What is meant by self-disclosure? [2 marks]

 

Model Answer

Self-disclosure refers to the act of revealing personal information or sharing intimate thoughts, feelings, or experiences with others. It involves voluntarily opening up and disclosing details about oneself to another person or a group. Self-disclosure can range from sharing simple facts about one's life to revealing deep emotions and personal struggles. It plays a crucial role in building trust, fostering connection, and developing meaningful relationships with others.

 

6.) Outline one strength and one limitation of self-disclosure as an explanation for attraction in romantic relationships [6 marks]

 

Model Answer

One strength of self-disclosure as an explanation for attraction in romantic relationships is supported by a study conducted by Sprecher et al. (2013). The study found that individuals in reciprocal dyads, where both partners engage in self-disclosure, reported higher levels of liking, closeness, perceived similarity, and enjoyment of the interaction compared to those in non-reciprocal dyads. This suggests that when both partners are willing to disclose personal information, it promotes positive feelings and strengthens the bond between them. This supports the idea that self-disclosure plays a crucial role in fostering attraction and relationship development.

However, a limitation of self-disclosure as an explanation for attraction in romantic relationships is the influence of cultural differences in patterns of self-disclosure. Different cultures have varying norms and expectations regarding the extent and content of self-disclosure. For example, collectivistic cultures may emphasise the importance of maintaining group harmony and may discourage individuals from disclosing personal information too readily. In contrast, individualistic cultures may place greater value on individual self-expression and encourage more open disclosure. These cultural differences can affect the level of comfort and willingness to engage in self-disclosure, potentially influencing the formation and maintenance of romantic relationships.

 

7.) Discuss Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown. [8 marks]

Model Answer

Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown describes the process of how relationships deteriorate and come to an end. The model consists of five phases. The first phase is the Breakdown phase where one partner becomes distressed with the way in which the relationship is conducted. The next phase is the intrapsychic phase, characterised by internal reflection and growing dissatisfaction within one partner.

The third phase is the dyadic phase, where partners express their dissatisfaction and engage in conflict, negotiation, and attempts to repair the relationship. The fourth phase is the social phase, during which the relationship problems become more visible to others, and partners seek advice and support from friends and family.

The final phase is the grave-dressing phase, where partners create narratives and explanations to make sense of the relationship's end and move forward emotionally.

However, one main issue of Duck's phase model is its lack of consideration for individual differences and variations in the breakup process. The model assumes a linear progression through the four phases, but in reality, not all relationships follow the same trajectory or experience each phase with equal intensity or duration. Factors such as relationship dynamics, personal coping mechanisms, and external circumstances can influence the progression and duration of each phase. This oversimplification of the breakup process may limit the model's applicability to diverse relationships and individuals, as it fails to account for the complexity and unique experiences of each person going through a relationship breakdown.

However, despite this issue, Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown has practical applications in helping individuals navigate and cope with the process of relationship dissolution. By outlining the different phases and typical experiences associated with each stage, the model can serve as a roadmap for individuals going through a breakup. It provides a sense of validation and normalcy to their feelings and experiences, reassuring them that what they are going through is a common and predictable part of the breakup process. This can be particularly beneficial for individuals who may be feeling lost, confused, or overwhelmed by the emotions and changes they are facing. By understanding the phases and knowing what to expect, individuals can better prepare themselves for the challenges ahead, seek appropriate support, and make more informed decisions about their future. Furthermore, the model can guide therapists and relationship counsellors in providing targeted interventions and support strategies tailored to each phase of the breakup process. This allows professionals to offer practical advice, coping strategies, and resources specific to the needs of individuals at each stage, enhancing the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions.

 

8.) Outline and evaluate the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships. [8 marks]

 

Model Answer

The absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships suggests that individuals develop intense attachments to media figures or characters due to their psychological need for companionship, intimacy, and social interaction. According to the model, individuals who are lonely or lack satisfying real-life relationships may seek solace and fulfilment through parasocial relationships with media figures. The model proposes that individuals become absorbed in these relationships and develop an addictive-like attachment, relying on the presence and interactions with the media figure to meet their emotional needs.

One strength of the absorption addiction model is its ability to explain the strong emotional connections individuals form with media figures. The model highlights the role of psychological factors, such as loneliness and the need for companionship, in driving the development of parasocial relationships. It acknowledges the emotional gratification individuals derive from these relationships, as they provide a sense of belonging, support, and connection. This can be particularly relevant in understanding the appeal of parasocial relationships for individuals who may face social isolation or difficulties in forming real-life relationships.

However, a limitation of the absorption addiction model is its lack of consideration for individual differences and variations in the formation and maintenance of parasocial relationships. The model assumes a linear progression from loneliness to absorption and addiction, overlooking the diversity of motivations and experiences individuals may have in their parasocial relationships. Not all individuals who engage in parasocial relationships do so due to loneliness, and some may form these relationships for other reasons, such as entertainment or escapism. Additionally, the model does not account for the potential positive aspects of parasocial relationships, such as the opportunities for inspiration, role modelling, or social learning that they may provide.

 

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Topic: Gender

9.) What is meant by gender dysphoria? [2 marks]

 

Model Answer

Gender dysphoria refers to the distress or discomfort a person may experience when their gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth. It involves a deep and persistent disconnect between one's internal sense of gender and the societal expectations and norms associated with their assigned sex. This distress may manifest as feelings of anxiety, depression, or dissatisfaction with one's body or social role.

 

10.) Outline one strength and one limitation of biological explanations for gender dysphoria. ( 6 marks)

 

Model Answer

One strength of biological explanations for gender dysphoria is their potential for practical applications in understanding and supporting individuals who experience gender dysphoria. Biological research has contributed to the development of medical interventions, such as hormone therapy and gender-affirming surgeries, which can alleviate the distress associated with gender dysphoria and help individuals align their bodies with their gender identity. These interventions have been shown to improve the well-being and quality of life for many transgender individuals, providing them with a pathway towards self-acceptance and a more congruent sense of self.

However, a limitation of biological explanations for gender dysphoria is their tendency to overlook the complex interplay of cultural and social factors that influence the experience of gender identity. Biological explanations often focus on physiological and genetic factors, neglecting the significant impact of societal norms, cultural expectations, and social constructs of gender. Gender identity is shaped by a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors, and an exclusive emphasis on biology can oversimplify the complexities of gender dysphoria. It fails to consider the influence of social stigma, discrimination, and the broader socio-cultural context in shaping the experiences and challenges faced by individuals with gender dysphoria.

 

11.) Discuss the effects of media on the development of gender roles. [8 marks]

Model Answer

Role models in the media are influential figures who are admired, imitated, and seen as examples to follow. They can have both positive and negative impacts on the development of gender roles. Positive role models in the media can challenge traditional gender stereotypes and provide individuals with alternative models of behaviour and identity. For example, strong and empowered female characters in movies or television shows can inspire young girls to pursue their ambitions and challenge societal limitations. Similarly, male characters who display emotional intelligence and engage in caregiving roles can encourage boys to develop a more egalitarian understanding of masculinity.

However, role models in the media can also perpetuate narrow and unrealistic standards of beauty, behaviour, and success, reinforcing gender stereotypes. Media often presents idealised versions of femininity and masculinity that may be unattainable for many individuals. This can contribute to body image issues, low self-esteem, and pressure to conform to societal expectations. The lack of diversity and representation in media also limits the range of role models available, particularly for marginalised groups, further reinforcing existing inequalities and stereotypes.

In addition, research conducted by Charlton et al. (2000) provides further insights into the influence of media on behaviour, specifically aggressive behaviour. Charlton et al. conducted a study examining the impact of media violence on aggressive behaviour in a small community. Surprisingly, they found no significant changes in aggressive behaviour among individuals exposed to media violence.

The researchers attributed this lack of effect to pre-existing community values that acted as a mitigating factor. They suggested that the community's strong emphasis on social norms and values may have counteracted any potential negative effects of media violence. The community's shared beliefs and expectations about acceptable behaviour may have served as a protective factor against the influence of media violence.

This finding highlights the complex interaction between media and societal factors in shaping gender behaviour. It suggests that the impact of media on individuals can be influenced by various contextual factors, including community values and norms. While media may have the potential to shape attitudes and gender behaviours, the influence is not deterministic and can be mediated by the broader sociocultural environment.

 

12.) Outline and evaluate Kohlberg's theory of gender development. [8 marks]

 

Model Answer

Kohlberg's theory of gender development proposes that children progress through three stages in their understanding of gender.

In the first stage, gender labelling, which typically occurs around the age of two and three, children begin to recognise and label themselves and others as either boys or girls. They start to grasp the basic concept of gender and use gendered terms to describe people and objects in their environment. The second stage, gender stability, emerges around the age of four. At this stage, children understand that their gender remains stable over time. They recognise that they will continue to be the same gender as they grow older. However, their understanding of gender stability is still influenced by external factors, such as changes in appearance or clothing. In the third stage, gender constancy, typically develops around the age of six or seven. Children in this stage understand that gender is consistent and does not change even if superficial attributes or appearances are altered. They grasp that being a boy or a girl is an intrinsic part of their identity that remains constant across various situations.

Kohlberg's theory of gender development has been influential in understanding the cognitive processes involved in children's understanding of gender. One strength of Kohlberg's theory is supported by research conducted by Thompson (1975), who found that children's ability to correctly identify their sex increases with age. Two-year-olds were found to be 76% correct in identifying their sex, while three-year-olds demonstrated an increased accuracy of 90%. This empirical evidence aligns with Kohlberg's notion of the sequential progression of gender understanding, providing support for the theory's validity.

Kohlberg's theory of gender development has been challenged due to concerns regarding how children's gender constancy is measured, as highlighted by Bem (1989). Bem argues that the method used to assess gender constancy has limitations. When faced with a contradiction between genitals and clothing, children tend to rely on cues that are more socially relevant, such as hairstyle and clothing, rather than displaying true gender constancy. According to Bem, children who base their gender identification on clothing are simply demonstrating their understanding of societal norms rather than displaying genuine constancy. This criticism raises doubts about the validity of research findings related to gender constancy within Kohlberg's theory.

Additionally, the methods employed by Slaby and Frey to assess gender constancy have also faced criticism. Martin and Halverson (1983) analysed children's responses to the questions used by Slaby and Frey and proposed that children may engage in a "pretend" mode when answering, rather than expressing their authentic thoughts. This suggests that children's responses may be influenced by their understanding of expected social norms, rather than reflecting their true understanding of gender constancy. These methodological concerns undermine the accuracy and reliability of the research findings, further diminishing the validity of the theory's claims regarding gender constancy.

 

Topic: Cognition and development

 

13.) Outline what Piaget meant by conservation. ( 2 marks)

 

Model Answer

Piaget's concept of conservation refers to the understanding that certain properties of objects or substances remain the same despite changes in their appearance or arrangement. It involves recognising that the quantity, mass, volume, or number of objects remains constant even when their outward appearance is altered.

 

14.) Outline one strength and one limitation of Piaget's research into conservation.( 6 marks)

 

Model Answer

One strength of Piaget's research into conservation is its important applications in shaping primary education in the UK. Piaget's stage theory influenced educational practices, as demonstrated by the Plowden Report (1967). The report incorporated Piaget's evidence that children are not developmentally prepared to grasp certain concepts until they reach a specific age. For example, according to Piaget, abstract mathematical calculations would be challenging for pre-operational children. Piaget's theory emphasised the importance of providing age-appropriate activities to facilitate genuine understanding and competence in learning. This practical application highlighted the significance of considering developmental readiness in educational settings. However, it is worth noting that challenges to Piaget's ideas have emerged, such as the findings by Bryant and Trabasso (1971) that training can enhance performance. These challenges suggest the need for a balanced approach, acknowledging both the practical importance of Piaget's theory and the possibility of refinement based on empirical evidence.

One limitation of Piaget's research into conservation is the criticism of cultural bias. Piaget's emphasis on logical operations in thinking may have stemmed from his middle-class European background and the participation of children from European academic families in his studies. This bias raises concerns about the universality of Piaget's theory across different cultures and social classes. Other cultures may place greater value on more basic concrete operations rather than abstract thinking. This limitation highlights the need for caution in generalising Piaget's findings to diverse cultural contexts. It suggests the importance of considering cultural variations in cognitive development and the potential influence of cultural factors on children's understanding of conservation. By recognising this limitation, researchers can strive for a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive development that incorporates cultural perspectives and avoids overly narrow assumptions.

 

15.) Discuss research into violation of expectation. ( 8 marks)

 

Model Answer

Research into violation of expectation, such as the study conducted by Baillargeon and DeVos (1991), utilises the idea that infants display surprise when witnessing impossible events. In their rolling carrot task, a large or small carrot slides along a track and becomes hidden behind a screen with a large window. According to the setup, the large carrot should be visible as it passes behind the window, but it actually does not appear, while the small carrot should remain hidden. The impossible event is when the large carrot fails to appear. Infants who have developed object permanence and an understanding of occlusion, as demonstrated by increased looking time, show surprise when presented with this impossible event.

Baillargeon and DeVos found that even infants as young as three months displayed object permanence when tested using this method, which contradicts Piaget's earlier belief that this ability develops around eight months. The infants showed a longer looking time at the large carrot, indicating their expectation that the top half would be visible behind the window. This suggests that they had a basic understanding of object permanence and the concept of occlusion. The findings of this research support the notion that infants possess cognitive abilities at an earlier age than previously thought, shedding light on the developmental timeline of object permanence and infants' understanding of hidden objects.

The research into violation of expectation, particularly the studies conducted by Baillargeon and DeVos, demonstrates careful control over key aspects of the research design, which contributes to its strength in terms of validity. Unlike Piaget's research that mainly included middle-class children, Baillargeon and DeVos used a sample obtained from birth announcements in the local paper, enhancing the population validity of their findings. They also took steps to minimise potential parental influence by instructing parents to keep their eyes shut and refrain from interacting with their infants during the experiments, thereby avoiding unconscious cues. Moreover, to address possible observer bias, the two observers assessing infant interest were kept blind to whether the events were possible or impossible, employing a double-blind design. These measures enhance both the population and experimental validity of Baillargeon's research.

However, a limitation of the violation of expectation method is the potential issue of low internal validity. Some researchers, such as Smith (1999), have raised questions about whether the method truly measures what it intends to capture: surprise at the violation of expectations. It is possible that infants' extended gaze towards impossible events does not necessarily indicate a violation of their understanding of the physical world, but rather reflects their heightened interest in certain features of the impossible event compared to the possible event. To address this criticism, researchers like Schlesinger and Casey (2003) have examined where infants direct their gaze during violation of expectation tasks.

Their findings suggest that infants' gaze patterns differ between possible and impossible tasks, but on impossible tasks, the increased interest may be better explained by factors related to perceptual novelty rather than an understanding of expectations. This challenges the conclusions drawn from violation of expectation research and raises questions about its internal validity.

 

16.) Outline and evaluate theory of mind as an explanation for autism. (8 marks)

Model Answer

The theory of mind (ToM) has been proposed as an explanation for autism, particularly by Simon Baron-Cohen. Individuals with autism often struggle with social interaction, which could be attributed to difficulties in understanding the mental states of others and predicting their behaviour. Baron-Cohen et al. (1985) conducted a study using the Sally-Anne test, involving three groups of participants: children with autism, children with Down's syndrome, and typically developing children. The participants were asked a "belief" question regarding where Sally thought a marble was hidden.

The findings revealed that a significant majority of typically developing children and children with Down's syndrome answered the false belief question correctly, indicating an understanding of mental states. However, only 20% of children with autism provided correct responses, suggesting an impairment in ToM in this group.

In subsequent research, Baron-Cohen et al. (1997) investigated whether high-functioning individuals on the autistic spectrum exhibited ToM abilities. They developed the Eyes Task, where participants were shown pictures of people's eyes and asked to select the corresponding emotion. The results showed that adults with autism scored lower on this task compared to typically developing individuals, indicating an impairment in ToM.

Theory of Mind (ToM) as an explanation for autism faces two critical issues. Firstly, not all individuals with autism display a lack of ToM abilities, as observed in the research studies. If ToM impairment was a fundamental aspect of autism, one would expect all participants with autism to exhibit deficits. This raises questions about the universality of ToM deficits in autism and suggests that ToM may not be the sole explanatory factor for the condition.

Secondly, the causal relationship between ToM and autism is uncertain. It is possible that children with autism struggle to develop a fully developed ToM not because of an inherent lack, but due to their difficulties in communication and social engagement. Factors such as abnormal language development and poor social skills may hinder their acquisition of appropriate experiences that foster ToM. This perspective challenges the notion that a lack of ToM causes the social interaction difficulties seen in autism.

However, one strength of considering Theory of Mind (ToM) as an explanation for autism lies in its practical applications. While ToM may not provide a complete explanation for autism, it does offer valuable insights into the social and communicative challenges faced by individuals on the autism spectrum. By recognising the importance of ToM in social interaction, interventions can be developed to specifically target and enhance ToM abilities in individuals with autism. This can include interventions aimed at improving perspective-taking skills, understanding emotions, and recognising mental states in others. By addressing ToM deficits and providing appropriate support, individuals with autism can gain valuable tools to navigate social interactions, enhance communication, and develop meaningful relationships. Therefore, despite its limitations, the consideration of ToM in the context of autism holds promise for guiding practical interventions that can significantly improve the quality of life for individuals on the autism spectrum.

 

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Section C

Schizophrenia or Eating behaviour or Stress

 

Choose one topic from Section C. Answer all questions on the topic you choose.

Topic: Schizophrenia

For each description in Table 1, choose a term from Table 2 which best represents that description. For each description, write the correct letter alongside the relevant term in your answer book. [4 marks]

 

 

A	When a diagnosis is consistent between psychiatrists
B	When a person has more than one condition at the same time
C	When a psychiatrist diagnoses a condition correctly
D	When two conditions have some effects in common

 

 

Table 2 Terms

 

Classification

Co-morbidity

Reliability

Symptom overlap

Validity

 

 

Model Answer

A= Reliability

B= Co-morbidity

C=Validity

D= Symptom overlap

 

18.) In a study into the effectiveness of a new drug therapy for schizophrenia, researchers gave one group of patients the new drug and another group of patients a placebo (a pretend drug).

The researchers were concerned that the outcome of the study might be influenced by the problems of demand characteristics and investigator effects.

Explain what the researchers could do to eliminate or reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects in this study [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

To eliminate or reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects in the study on the effectiveness of the new drug therapy for schizophrenia, researchers can implement a double-blind design. This can help minimise demand characteristics and investigator effects. In this design, neither the patients nor the researchers know which group is receiving the new drug or the placebo. By keeping the information concealed, both groups are treated similarly, reducing the potential for demand characteristics and investigator bias to influence the outcomes.

Also, by implementing standardised procedures ensures consistency across all aspects of the study, including assessments, data collection, and interactions with participants. By following a strict protocol, researchers can minimise variations in how the drug and placebo groups are treated, reducing the potential for demand characteristics and investigator effects.

 

19.) Jay has schizophrenia. His speech is rapid and confused and he changes constantly from one idea to something completely different. Jay's father was treated for mental health problems when he was younger. Jay's mother worries excessively about Jay. She often criticises his behaviour and tells him what to do. Jay's doctor prescribes medication which seems to reduce his symptoms.

Discuss one or more explanations for schizophrenia. Refer to Jay in your answer. [16 marks]

 

Model Answer

Biological factors play a significant role in schizophrenia. Abnormalities in brain structure and function have been observed in individuals with schizophrenia. Jay's rapid and confused speech, along with his shifting ideas, can be attributed to disorganized thinking, a common symptom of the disorder. The excessive dopamine activity in certain brain regions is believed to contribute to the development of psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia. Jay's positive response to medication supports the dopamine hypothesis, as antipsychotic medications primarily target dopamine receptors, helping to alleviate symptoms. This suggests that an imbalance in neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine, could be an explanation for Jay's schizophrenia symptoms.

Genetic factors also contribute to the development of schizophrenia. Jay's father being treated for mental health problems when he was younger indicates a possible familial link. Research has shown (Gottesman, 1991) that individuals with a first-degree relative, such as a parent or sibling, with schizophrenia have a higher risk of developing the disorder themselves. Genetic studies specifically looking at MZ (identical) and DZ (non-identical) twins have identified specific genes and genetic variations associated with an increased susceptibility to schizophrenia. Jay may have inherited certain genetic factors that predispose him to the development of the disorder, and his father's history of mental health problems further supports the role of genetics in his case.

An alternative explanation Psychosocial factors, such as family dynamics or dysfunction and environmental stressors, can also contribute to the development and progression of schizophrenia. Jay's mother's excessive worrying and criticism, as well as her tendency to control his behaviour, may create a stressful and invalidating environment for him. High levels of expressed emotion within families have been linked to poorer outcomes for individuals with schizophrenia. (Kuipers et al, 1983) Stressful life events, such as trauma or social adversity, can also trigger the onset or exacerbation of symptoms in susceptible individuals. It is possible that Jay's experiences within his family and other environmental factors could have contributed to the manifestation and severity of his symptoms.

The evidence from numerous twin studies consistently indicates a higher concordance rate for schizophrenia among MZ twins compared to DZ twins. This suggests that genetic factors play a significant role in the development of schizophrenia, supporting the validity of the twin study approach and genetic explanations. While environmental factors certainly contribute to individual differences, the overall body of research suggests that genetic influences cannot be dismissed based solely on the argument of differential environments experienced by MZ and DZ twins.

As well as this, the success of antipsychotic medications in treating schizophrenia symptoms and their ability to modulate dopamine levels provide compelling evidence for the involvement of dopamine in the disorder. The meta-analysis conducted by Leucht et al. (2013) reinforces the effectiveness of antipsychotics in reducing both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. This finding supports the dopamine hypothesis, suggesting that abnormal dopamine activity contributes to the manifestation of symptoms. Furthermore, the small differences in effectiveness between typical and atypical antipsychotics challenge the traditional classification and indicate that dopamine modulation is a key mechanism regardless of drug type. While the evidence from drug treatments is valuable in supporting the dopamine hypothesis, it is essential to acknowledge that medication effects are not exclusive to dopamine regulation and that other neurotransmitter systems may also be involved in the complex etiology of schizophrenia.

Finally, while it is true that not all patients who live in high EE families experience relapse, and individual differences in stress response and perception of relatives' behaviour exist, this does not discount the influence of high EE environments. The vulnerability to high EE may vary among individuals, and certain psychological factors, such as the appraisal of family behaviour, can mitigate its negative impact. However, research consistently demonstrates that high levels of expressed emotion within the family environment are associated with increased relapse rates and poorer outcomes for individuals with schizophrenia. This suggests that while individual differences and psychological factors may mediate the effects of high EE, the overall influence of this environmental factor should not be dismissed. Therefore, the evidence supports the notion that high EE environments contribute to the course and prognosis of schizophrenia, but individual variability and psychological resilience should also be considered.

 

 

Topic: Eating behaviour

 

20.) For each description in Table 3, choose a term from Table 4 which best represents that description.

For each description, write the correct letter alongside the relevant term in your answer book. [4 marks]

 

 

A	When someone has an innate fear of unfamiliar foods
B	When someone regulates their food consumption
C	When someone shows unrestrained eating
D	When someone tends to dislike certain flavours

 

 

 

Boundary

Disinhibition

Neophobia

Restraint

Taste aversion

 

Model Answer

 

A= Neophobia

 

B= Restraint

 

C= Disinhibition

 

D= Taste aversion

 

21.) In a study into the effectiveness of a new drug therapy for limiting appetite, researchers gave one group of patients the new drug and another group of patients a placebo (a pretend drug)

The researchers were concerned that the outcome of the study might be influenced by the problems of demand characteristics and investigator effects.

 

Explain what the researchers could do to eliminate or reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects in this study. [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

To eliminate or reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects in the study investigating the effectiveness of a new drug therapy for limiting appetite, researchers can do this by implement a double-blind procedure. This is crucial in minimising demand characteristics and investigator effects. In this design, neither the participants nor the researchers directly involved in the study know which group (drug or placebo) each participant belongs to. This prevents participants from altering their behaviour or responses based on their expectations or the researchers' cues. By maintaining blinding, the study can ensure that any observed effects are genuinely due to the drug's efficacy rather than participant or researcher biases.

Also, by developing standardised protocols and instructions for both the drug and placebo groups can help reduce demand characteristics. By providing identical information, explanations, and guidelines to participants in both groups, researchers can minimise any inadvertent cues or differential treatment that may influence participants' responses. This approach ensures that participants in each group receive equal attention and instructions, thereby reducing the potential for biased outcomes.

 

22.) Elliot is very underweight but believes that he is fatter than actors on TV. He thinks a lot about his looks, often checking himself in the mirror. At mealtimes he likes arranging and counting pieces of food on his plate. Elliot's mother once had eating problems. She is extremely anxious about him. She watches him constantly and is always telling him what to do. His doctor has prescribed medication which seems to help with Elliot's condition.

Discuss one or more explanations for anorexia nervosa. Refer to Elliot in your answer [16 marks]

 

Model Answer

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a complex psychological disorder characterised by severe restriction of food intake, intense fear of gaining weight, distorted body image, and excessive focus on weight and appearance. Elliot's case provides insights into the potential explanations for AN, including genetic factors, familial influences, and psychosomatic family dynamics.

Research has shown that eating disorders, including AN, tend to run in families, indicating a genetic predisposition. Elliot's mother's history of eating problems suggests a potential genetic influence on his condition. Studies on first-degree relatives of individuals with AN have demonstrated a significantly higher lifetime risk of developing AN compared to relatives of unaffected individuals. This suggests that genetic factors contribute to the vulnerability to eating disorders in general, rather than AN specifically. Twin studies have further supported the heritability of AN, with estimates ranging from 28% to 74%. Wade et al.'s (2000) study on female MZ and DZ twins revealed a heritability rate of 58% for AN, suggesting that some individuals have a greater genetic predisposition to develop AN.

Another explanation for AN is the influence of psychosomatic family dynamics. The psychosomatic family model proposed by Minuchin et al. (1978) emphasises the interaction between a dysfunctional family environment and the physiological vulnerability of the child. Enmeshment, autonomy, and control are key aspects of this model. Enmeshed families exhibit intense and over-involved interactions, lacking clear boundaries, which can lead to individuals feeling lost within the family system. Enmeshment stifles the development of necessary skills to cope with social stressors and increases the likelihood of developing disorders such as AN. Additionally, enmeshed families restrict autonomy and independence, preventing the individual from developing age-appropriate autonomy. The excessive control within the psychosomatic family further contributes to the development of AN, as the individual may rebel against this control by engaging in restrictive eating behaviours.

Genetic explanations for anorexia nervosa (AN) have been subject to evaluation and criticism. Fairburn et al. (1999) highlight the inconsistent findings regarding the heritability of AN, with widely varying estimates reported in different studies. Moreover, they point out that the assumption of equal environments for monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins may be violated, as MZ twins tend to be treated more similarly than DZ twins. This challenges the claim that the higher concordance rate in MZ twins is solely attributable to genetic factors. These issues suggest that the role of genetics in AN may be more complex and less straightforward than initially proposed.

Furthermore, a significant criticism of genetic explanations is their failure to acknowledge the influence of environmental factors, particularly the media, in the development of AN. The idealisation of an extremely thin female body type in the media has long been identified as a risk factor for eating disorders. Bulik (2004) suggests that genetically vulnerable individuals may actively seek out images of thin role models in the media to reinforce their distorted body image. Supporting this notion, Vaughn and Fouts (2003) found that increased severity of AN symptoms over time correlated with greater engagement in fashion magazine reading among adolescent girls. This indicates that environmental factors, such as media exposure, can contribute to the development and perpetuation of AN, beyond genetic predispositions alone.

On the other hand, the psychosomatic family model proposes that dysfunctional family dynamics, specifically enmeshment, lack of autonomy, and excessive control, play a crucial role in the development of AN. While Manzi et al. (2006) demonstrated a link between family cohesion and positive outcomes among adolescents, research attempting to identify specific characteristics unique to families with a member with AN has produced inconsistent and inconclusive results. Kog and Vandereycken (1989) failed to find the predicted characteristics outlined by the psychosomatic family model. Additionally, it remains unclear whether these characteristics are present before the onset of AN or are a response to having a family member with the disorder. These limitations raise doubts about the universality and applicability of the psychosomatic family model as a comprehensive explanation for AN.

 

Topic: Stress

 

23.) For each description in Table 5, choose a term from Table 6 which best represents that description.

For each description, write the correct letter alongside the relevant term in your answer book. [4 marks]

 

 

A	Perceiving changes as opportunities
B	Possessing traits that enable you to cope well with stress
C	Preferring to get involved and make an effort
D	Thinking that you can determine what happens in your life

 

 

 

Challenge

Commitment

Control

Hardiness

Hassles

 

 Model Answer

A= Challenge

B= Hardiness

C= Commitment

D= Control

 

24.) In a study into the effectiveness of a new drug therapy for stress, researchers gave one group of patients the new drug and another group of patients a placebo (a pretend drug).

The researchers were concerned that the outcome of the study might be influenced by the problems of demand characteristics and investigator effects. Explain what the researchers could do to eliminate or reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects in this study. [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

To eliminate or reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects in the study, the researchers can do this first of all by implementing a double-blind procedure. This can effectively minimise demand characteristics and investigator effects. This involves ensuring that neither the participants nor the researchers know which group is receiving the actual drug and which group is receiving the placebo. By keeping this information concealed, participants are less likely to alter their behaviour based on their expectations, and the researchers remain unbiased in their observations and assessments.

The researchers should also establish standardised procedures for both the drug and placebo groups. This means administering the drug and placebo in the same manner, following a consistent schedule, and providing equal attention and care to all participants. By maintaining consistency across conditions, the researchers can minimise the potential influence of demand characteristics and ensure that any observed effects are more likely attributable to the drug itself rather than extraneous factors.

 

25.) Carrie is so stressed that she lies awake at night listening to her heart pounding. She works in a large, noisy warehouse sorting packages that come along a conveyor belt. Workers who do not meet their daily target receive only the minimum wage. Carrie has failed to meet her target every day this week The factory workers have been trying for weeks to organise a meeting to discuss working conditions and work-related illness with the manager.

Discuss what psychologists have found out about workplace stress. Refer to Carrie in your answer. [16 marks]

 

Model Answer

Psychologists have conducted research on workplace stress, which can help shed light on Carrie's situation in the noisy warehouse sorting packages. One prominent model that addresses the factors contributing to workplace stress is the job-strain model. This model combines the concepts of workload and job control to explain how the workplace can create stress and illness.

The Whitehall study, led by Marmot, examined over 10,000 UK civil servants and their experiences of workplace stress (Marmot et al., 1997). The study found that employees in higher grades, who had high levels of workload and control, experienced stress due to different reasons compared to those in lower grades. The researchers assessed the participants' job workload, subjective job control, and social support. After eleven years, they evaluated the participants' risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) as an indicator of the effects of stress. The findings revealed that high workload alone was not associated with CHD, but low job control was. The combination of low job control and high workload (as proposed by the job-strain model) was particularly impactful among younger workers and was not mitigated by high levels of social support.

Another study conducted by Johansson et al. (1978) focused on a Swedish sawmill and examined the impact of workload and control on stress levels. They compared two groups of manual laborers: a high-risk group consisting of sawyers, edgers, and graders with high workload and low control, and a low-risk group consisting of stickers, repairmen, and maintenance workers with matched factors such as education and job experience. The researchers measured adrenaline levels (as an indicator of stress) and obtained self-reports of job satisfaction and illness. The findings indicated that the high-risk group had higher illness rates, higher levels of adrenaline in their urine, and reported more instances of illness. The high-risk group also reported a greater workload, a lowered sense of control, a repetitive and constrained job, and a sense of social isolation.

These studies highlight the importance of workload and job control in workplace stress. In Carrie's case, her stressful job in a noisy warehouse with strict productivity targets could contribute to her experience of stress. The combination of a high workload and limited control over deadlines and procedures may increase her susceptibility to workplace stress. Furthermore, the lack of control and repetitive nature of her tasks may negatively impact her job satisfaction and overall well-being.

Lazarus (1995) emphasises the importance of individual differences in perceiving and coping with workplace stressors. According to Lazarus' transactional approach, the degree to which a stressor is perceived as stressful depends on a person's perceived ability to cope. For example, Schaubroeck et al. (2001) found that some workers are less stressed by having no control or responsibility. Their study measured immune system functioning and discovered that some individuals had better immune responses in low-control situations. This suggests that the job-strain model, which emphasises the negative impact of low control, may not always hold true. For individuals who view negative work outcomes as their fault, high control can exacerbate the unhealthy effects of stress. Thus, understanding individual differences in coping styles and perceptions of control is crucial in evaluating workplace stress and its impact on individuals like Carrie.

As well as this, the methods used to study workplace stress have also been a subject of criticism. Many studies rely on questionnaires, which may be prone to social desirability bias. Dewe (1989) argues that traditional questionnaires may overlook important stressors while emphasising ones that are no longer relevant. Keenan and Newton (1989) found that interviews revealed stressors not typically covered by questionnaires, highlighting the limitations of this method. Additionally, traditional questionnaires may fail to capture the significance of factors such as time-wasting job demands and interpersonal conflicts, while overemphasising role conflict and ambiguity. Thus, using interviews as an alternative method for assessing workplace stressors can offer a more valid and comprehensive understanding of the impact of stress on individuals like Carrie.

Finally, while workplace stress may not directly cause depressive illness, high levels of stress at work, combined with other problems in an individual's life, can increase the likelihood of depression. Warr (1987) likens certain features of the workplace to "vitamins" that contribute to the mental health of workers. Just as low levels of vitamins lead to poor physical health, low levels of work-related features can contribute to poor mental health. This suggests that workplace stress is just one of many daily hassles that, in combination, can lead to mental health problems. Understanding the interplay between workplace stress and other factors in individuals' lives, such as difficulties at home or daily hassles, is essential in comprehending the impact on mental health.

 

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Section D

Aggression or Forensic psychology or Addiction

 

Choose one topic from Section D. Answer all questions on the topic you choose.

 

Topic: Aggression

 

In an experiment into the effects of cognitive priming, 20 participants played an unfamiliar computer game. Half of the participants watched a violent film before playing the computer game. The other half watched a neutral film before playing the computer game. After playing the computer game, each participant was classified as showing High Aggression or Low Aggression.

The researcher decided to use a Chi-Squared test to analyse the data from this study. One reason for choosing this test was that each participant only took part in one condition of the experiment.

26.) Referring to information about the study, explain two other reasons why it was appropriate to use a Chi-Squared test in this case. [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

Firstly, the Chi-Squared test is suitable when analysing categorical data. In this experiment, the variable being examined is aggression, which was classified as either High Aggression or Low Aggression. These categories represent discrete and mutually exclusive outcomes, making the data categorical in nature.

The Chi-Squared test is suitable for testing differences or associations between variables. In this experiment, the hypotheses could be formulated to test for either a difference or an association. For example, the researcher may have hypothesised that watching a violent film would lead to a significantly higher proportion of participants exhibiting High Aggression compared to watching a neutral film, indicating a difference between the film conditions. Alternatively, the researcher may have hypothesised that there would be an association between the film condition and aggression levels, without specifying a direction of the effect.

 

27.) Using your knowledge of research into cognitive priming, explain the likely outcome of the study (4 marks)

 

Model Answer

Based on the information provided from Bushman's study on cognitive priming, the likely outcome of the study investigating the effects of cognitive priming in the given scenario would be that participants who watched the violent film before playing the computer game would exhibit higher levels of aggression compared to those who watched the neutral film.

In Bushman's study, participants who watched the violent film (Karate Kid III) demonstrated quicker reaction times to aggressive words, indicating that the exposure to violence in the media primed aggressive thoughts in their memory. This suggests that the violent film activated aggressive cognitions, making them more accessible and influencing participants' subsequent behaviour.

Applying this finding to the given study, it is likely that participants who watched the violent film before playing the computer game would show a similar pattern. The cognitive priming effect would lead to heightened aggression among these participants, potentially resulting in more aggressive behaviour during the computer game compared to those who watched the neutral film.

Therefore, based on the established support for the cognitive priming explanation in media-related aggression, it can be inferred that the participants exposed to the violent film in the given study would likely exhibit higher aggression levels in response to the computer game compared to the participants who watched the neutral film.

 

28.) Different participants were used in each condition of the experiment, which might have affected the results. Explain one way in which the experiment could be changed to control for the problem of using different participants in each condition [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

To control for the problem of using different participants in each condition and minimise the potential impact of participant variability on the results, a randomised repeated design could be implemented in the experiment. This design would involve each participant experiencing both the violent film condition and the neutral film condition, with the order of presentation randomised.

By employing a repeated measures design, each participant serves as their own control, reducing the influence of individual differences and making the comparison between conditions more reliable. In this modified design, half of the participants would watch the violent film first, followed by the neutral film, while the other half would experience the conditions in the reverse order.

Using the same set of participants in both conditions ensures that any differences observed in aggression levels can be attributed to the manipulation (i.e., exposure to the violent film) rather than individual differences between participants. By counterbalancing the order of conditions, any potential order effects (e.g., fatigue, learning, or carryover effects) can be controlled for, as they would be distributed evenly across the two groups.

This approach allows for a more rigorous evaluation of the effects of cognitive priming on aggression within individuals and increases the internal validity of the study by reducing the confounding influence of participant differences. It provides a more controlled and reliable comparison between the conditions, strengthening the conclusions drawn from the study.

 

29.) Describe how de-individuation is involved in aggression. [6 marks]

 

Model Answer

De-individuation plays a significant role in aggression, as it refers to a psychological state where individuals become less self-aware and more responsive to situational cues rather than personal values or norms. Festinger et al. (1952) initially described de-individuation as the loss of inner restraints when individuals are not seen or paid attention to as people. Zimbardo further developed this concept, emphasising that de-individuation occurs in crowds or large groups, providing individuals with a sense of anonymity and diminished personal consequences for their actions.

The process of de-individuation involves the reduction of inner restraints and the release of behaviour that is typically inhibited due to social norms and individual accountability. Anonymity, often facilitated by factors like wearing uniforms, and altered consciousness induced by drugs or alcohol, contribute to de-individuation. When individuals feel anonymous in a crowd, they are less concerned about their actions being personally identifiable, leading to a decrease in inner inhibitions and an increase in behaviours that are typically restrained, such as aggression.

Within a large crowd, individuals become faceless and anonymous, and the anonymity intensifies as the size of the group increases. This anonymity diminishes the fear of negative evaluation and reduces the sense of guilt associated with aggressive behaviour. Consequently, the barriers that are usually based on guilt or shame are weakened, allowing individuals to engage in aggressive acts without the typical constraints.

 

30.) Evaluate the role of de-individuation in aggression. [6 marks]

 

Model Answer

Gender differences have been observed in the context of de-individuation and aggression. Studies such as Cannavale et al. (1970) and Diener et al. (1973) have shown that under de-individuation conditions, males tend to exhibit a greater increase in aggression compared to females. These findings suggest that de-individuation amplifies pre-existing gender differences in aggression. Eagly (2013) suggests that males may have a tendency to respond to provocation in more extreme ways than females, and this tendency is further magnified when they experience de-individuation. This indicates that de-individuation may have a stronger influence on aggressive behaviour among males. However, it is important to note that these studies have focused primarily on all-male and all-female groups, and further research is needed to explore the nuanced interaction between gender, de-individuation, and aggression in mixed-gender contexts.

The concept of anonymity in de-individuation has also been examined in relation to aggressive behaviour. Rehm et al. (1987) conducted a study in which they observed handball games in German schools, comparing teams wearing the same uniform (increased anonymity) to teams wearing different-coloured shirts (less anonymity). The researchers found that the teams wearing the same uniform exhibited significantly more aggressive acts during the games compared to the teams without uniforms. This study provides support for Zimbardo's concept of de-individuation, indicating that increased anonymity leads to a higher likelihood of engaging in aggressive behaviour. The anonymity provided by the uniform creates a sense of reduced personal accountability and inhibitions, allowing individuals to behave more aggressively. However, it is important to consider that the context of competitive sports may also contribute to the expression of aggression, and the findings may not necessarily extend to other situations.

 

Topic: Forensic psychology

In an experiment into the effectiveness of the top-down approach to offender profiling, 20 participants were asked to build a profile of an offender using information from real life cases. Half of the participants were given information about a murder case and asked to produce a profile. The other half were given information about a robbery and asked to produce a profile. After the profiling session, each profile was classified as High Accuracy or Low Accuracy.

The researcher decided to use a Chi-Squared test to analyse the data from this study. One reason for choosing this test was that each participant only took part in one condition of the experiment.

31.) Referring to information about the study, explain two other reasons why it was appropriate to use a Chi-Squared test in this case [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

The Chi-Squared test is well-suited for analysing categorical data, where observations are sorted into distinct categories. In this experiment, the profiles generated by participants were classified as either High Accuracy or Low Accuracy. These classifications represent categorical data since they fall into separate, non-overlapping categories.

The Chi-Squared test can also be used to determine if there is an association between two categorical variables. In this study, the researcher is interested in examining whether there is an association between the type of crime (murder or robbery) and the accuracy of the profiles produced by the participants. By using the Chi-Squared test, the researcher can assess whether there is a relationship between these two variables.

 

32.) Using your knowledge of the top-down approach to offender profiling, explain the likely outcome of the study. [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

Given the nature of the top-down approach and the emphasis on the profiler's intuition and prior knowledge, the likely outcome of the study would depend on the effectiveness of this approach in producing accurate offender profiles. If the top-down approach proves to be successful, the study may show that participants who were given information about a murder case (which aligns with the top-down approach's focus on extreme and bizarre murder cases) were more likely to produce profiles with high accuracy. This would suggest that the top-down approach, with its reliance on intuitive reasoning and prior knowledge, can be effective in offender profiling.

However, if the results of the study do not demonstrate a significant difference in accuracy between the murder and robbery conditions, it may indicate limitations or challenges associated with the top-down approach. It could suggest that the top-down approach, despite its intuitive nature, may not consistently lead to accurate offender profiles or that other factors, such as the specific information provided or the expertise of the participants, play a more significant role in profiling accuracy.

 

33.) Different participants were used in each condition of the experiment, which might have affected the results. Explain one way in which the experiment could be changed to control for the problem of using different participants in each condition [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

To control for the problem of using different participants in each condition of the experiment, a possible change could be to employ a matched pairs design. In this design, participants would be paired based on relevant characteristics (e.g., age, gender, experience, or expertise) and then randomly assigned to the murder or robbery condition within each pair. This way, each pair of participants would consist of individuals who are similar in terms of relevant variables, reducing the potential impact of participant differences on the results.

By using a matched pairs design, any potential variability introduced by participant characteristics would be minimised as participants within each pair would have similar attributes. This would enhance the internal validity of the study by reducing confounding variables related to individual differences. It would also help ensure that any observed differences between the murder and robbery conditions are more likely to be attributable to the experimental manipulation (i.e., the type of crime information provided) rather than participant characteristics.

 

34.) Describe how cognitive distortions might be involved in offending behaviour. [6 marks]

 

Model Answer

Cognitive distortions play a significant role in offending behaviour by influencing how individuals perceive and interpret events, allowing them to rationalise or deny their actions. Two examples of cognitive distortions that are particularly relevant to crime are hostile attribution bias and minimalisation.

Hostile attribution bias involves a tendency to interpret ambiguous or neutral actions of others as hostile or threatening. Individuals with this bias are more likely to assume negative intentions or motives in others, even when there is no evidence to support such interpretations. In the context of criminal behaviour, this cognitive distortion can lead to increased aggression. Offenders with a hostile attribution bias may consistently misinterpret the actions of others as intentionally harmful, which can escalate conflicts and provoke aggressive responses. For example, if someone smiles at them, they may interpret it as a malicious or mocking gesture, leading to an aggressive reaction.

Minimalisation is a cognitive distortion where individuals downplay or diminish the significance or consequences of their behaviour. This distortion allows offenders to reduce negative interpretations of their actions, both before and after committing a crime. By minimising the impact or harm caused by their behaviour, individuals can alleviate guilt, justify their actions, and reduce negative emotions associated with their criminal acts. For instance, a burglar might engage in minimalisation by convincing themselves that stealing from a wealthy family has little effect on their lives, downplaying the harm they are causing to the victims and reducing their own feelings of guilt or remorse.

 

35.) Evaluate the role of cognitive distortions in offending. [6 marks]

 

Model Answer

The role of cognitive distortions in offending can be evaluated based on research support for hostile attribution bias. Schönenberg and Aiste (2014) conducted a study with 55 violent offenders in prison, comparing their responses to emotionally ambiguous faces with those of matched control participants. The results showed that the offenders were more likely to interpret faces displaying even slight expressions of anger as expressions of aggression. This research suggests that misinterpretation of non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, may contribute to aggressive and impulsive behaviour in susceptible individuals. By perceiving hostility or threat where none exists, offenders with a hostile attribution bias are more likely to respond with aggression. This supports the idea that cognitive distortions, specifically hostile attribution bias, play a role in shaping offending behaviour.

On the other hand, the role of cognitive distortions in offending can also be assessed based on research support for minimalisation. Kennedy and Grubin (1992) found that sex offenders often downplayed their behaviour when describing their crimes, sometimes attributing blame to the victim or denying that a crime had occurred. This tendency to minimise the seriousness or consequences of their actions allows offenders to protect their self-image and reduce negative emotions associated with their behaviour. Maruna and Mann (2006) suggest that this cognitive distortion is a normal human tendency to blame external sources to protect oneself. The research into sex offenders' crimes aligns with this idea and provides support for the role of minimalization in offending behaviour. By diminishing the significance of their actions, offenders can maintain a distorted perception of reality and mitigate feelings of guilt or responsibility.

Understanding cognitive distortions can have practical implications for treatment and rehabilitation. Heller et al. (2013) conducted a study using cognitive-behavioural techniques to address cognitive distortions in a group of young men from disadvantaged backgrounds. The participants who attended 13 one-hour sessions experienced a 44% reduction in arrests compared to a control group. This research suggests that cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) can effectively target and challenge cognitive distortions, leading to positive outcomes in terms of reducing reoffending rates. By addressing cognitive distortions and promoting more accurate and rational thinking patterns, interventions can help individuals develop a better understanding of the consequences of their actions and promote pro-social behaviour.

 

Topic: Addiction

In an experiment into the effect of reinforcement on gambling, 20 participants played 10 practice card games on a computer. The computer system was pre-programmed so that half of the participants won in games 1, 2, 6, 8 and 10 and the other half won no practice games. After the 10 practice games, each participant played a test game and the amount of money each participant bet in the test game was classified as High Stakes (gambled more money) or Low Stakes (gambled less money).

The researcher decided to use a Chi-Squared test to analyse the data from this study. One reason for choosing this test was that each participant only took part in one condition of the experiment.

 

36.) Referring to information about the study, explain two other reasons why it was appropriate to use a Chi-Squared test in this case. ( 4 marks)

 

Model Answer

The Chi-Squared test is suitable for this study because it allows for testing differences between groups or conditions. In this case, the researcher is interested in examining the effect of reinforcement (winning vs. not winning practice games) on the amount of money bet in the test game. By comparing the frequencies of participants who placed High Stakes bets and Low Stakes bets in the two conditions, the Chi-Squared test can determine if there is a significant difference in gambling behaviour between the groups. It helps to determine if the reinforcement (winning practice games) had an impact on the participants' betting choices.

The data collected in this study, specifically the classification of the amount of money bet in the test game (High Stakes vs. Low Stakes), is categorical or nominal in nature. The Chi-Squared test is one of the few statistical tests suitable for analysing such categorical data. It involves counting the number of participants in each category (frequency count) and comparing these observed frequencies with the expected frequencies under a null hypothesis. In this case, the researcher can compare the observed frequencies of High Stakes and Low Stakes bets in the two conditions and assess if there is a significant association or difference between the conditions based on the distribution of the categorical data.

 

37.) Using your knowledge of learning theory as applied to gambling, explain the likely outcome of the study [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

Based on the principles of learning theory as applied to gambling, the likely outcome of the study can be predicted as follows. The participants who were reinforced by winning in certain practice games (games 1, 2, 6, 8, and 10) are expected to exhibit a higher tendency to engage in high-stakes gambling in the test game. This can be attributed to the principles of operant conditioning, where behaviours that produce rewarding consequences become more frequent. Winning in the practice games serves as a positive reinforcement, providing physiological, psychological, social, and financial rewards. As mentioned by Griffiths (2009), gamblers can become addicted due to the various rewards associated with gambling, and the experience of winning holds significant weight in their decision-making process. Thus, the reinforcement received during the practice games may lead to an increased preference for high-stakes gambling in the test game.

Furthermore, the study design incorporates the use of partial reinforcement and variable reinforcement schedules, which are known to influence gambling behaviour. Gamblers are particularly susceptible to conditioning, and the partial reinforcement schedule, where wins follow some bets but not all, can make behaviours more resistant to extinction. The uncertainty of reinforcement makes it more difficult for individuals to stop gambling, even if they have been losing for a significant amount of time. The variable reinforcement aspect, specifically the variable-ratio reinforcement employed in gambling machines, contributes to the unpredictability of rewards. The average ratio of wins to losses may be one to four, but the timing of wins is unpredictable. This uncertainty and unpredictability of rewards keep individuals engaged in gambling activities.

 

38.) Different participants were used in each condition of the experiment, which might have affected the results.

Explain one way in which the experiment could be changed to control for the problem of using different participants in each condition. [4 marks]

 

Model Answer

To control for the issue of using different participants in each condition and minimise potential confounding variables, a matched pairs design can be implemented. In a matched pairs design, participants are carefully matched based on relevant characteristics that could influence the outcome variable. This approach allows for a direct comparison between participants who are similar in important aspects, reducing the impact of individual differences and enhancing the internal validity of the study.

In this experiment, the first step would involve selecting participants who meet the inclusion criteria. These participants would then be assessed on various variables such as age, gender, gambling experience, and any other relevant factors. Based on these variables, pairs of participants would be formed, matching individuals who are similar or nearly identical on these characteristics.

Once the pairs are established, one participant from each pair would be randomly assigned to the reinforcement condition (winning in specific practice games), while the other participant would be assigned to the control condition (no practice game wins). This random assignment helps ensure that any observed differences between the conditions can be attributed to the manipulation and not to pre-existing differences between participants.

During the experiment, both participants within each matched pair would participate in the 10 practice card games. Afterward, they would engage in a test game where the amount of money each participant bets would be recorded. This setup allows for a direct comparison of the gambling behaviour between participants within each pair.

 

39.) Describe cue reactivity as an explanation for nicotine addiction. ( 6 marks)

 

Model Answer  

Cue reactivity is an explanation for nicotine addiction that revolves around the association between smoking-related cues and the rewarding effects of nicotine. When individuals who are addicted to nicotine stop smoking, they often experience persistent urges to smoke again, even after withdrawal symptoms have subsided. This phenomenon is attributed to the power of smoking-related cues to trigger relapse.

Classical conditioning provides a framework for understanding cue reactivity in nicotine addiction. Regular smoking leads to the activation of brain reward pathways, resulting in increased dopamine release. Over time, the repeated pairing of the sensory aspects of smoking, such as the sight of cigarettes or the smell of smoke, with the reinforcing effects of nicotine establishes a strong conditioned association.

In this context, nicotine's effects act as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits a response in the brain, causing an increase in dopamine levels. The brain naturally seeks to maintain equilibrium and restore dopamine levels back to normal, which becomes the unconditioned response (UCR). Any stimuli associated with nicotine, such as the smell of cigarette smoke, transform from neutral stimuli (NS) into conditioned stimuli (CS).

The conditioned stimuli (CS) then serve as signals that nicotine is imminent. With repeated associations between the CS and the UCS, the CS alone is capable of activating the same response that was initially triggered by nicotine, known as the conditioned response (CR). This response can occur even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), as the brain's response without nicotine leads to a lowering of dopamine levels below the optimal range, resulting in withdrawal symptoms.

The experience of withdrawal symptoms motivates individuals to seek relief by smoking again, as nicotine intake helps restore dopamine levels and alleviate the negative effects of withdrawal. Thus, the conditioned stimuli associated with smoking become powerful triggers for relapse, as they have acquired the ability to elicit a craving or desire to smoke.

 

40.) Evaluate cue reactivity as an explanation for nicotine addiction. [6 marks]

 

Model Answer

Cue reactivity, as an explanation for nicotine addiction, has received support from research studies. Wiers et al. (2013) conducted a study comparing heavy smokers, ex-smokers, and non-smokers to examine their responses to smoking-related and neutral cues. The results revealed that heavy smokers exhibited a significant approach bias towards smoking-related cues compared to the other groups. Furthermore, the extent of this bias was positively correlated with the intensity of their cravings. This study provides empirical evidence for the importance of classically conditioned cues in nicotine cravings and supports the notion that smoking cues play a significant role in nicotine addiction.

The implications of cue reactivity research for treatment approaches can be seen in the cue exposure therapy (CET) proposed by Drummond et al. (1990). This treatment approach recognises that cues associated with smoking contribute to the maintenance of the smoking habit. CET involves presenting these cues to individuals without providing the opportunity to engage in smoking behaviour. By repeatedly exposing individuals to smoking cues without the reinforcing effects of nicotine, stimulus discrimination occurs. This means that the association between the cue and smoking is gradually extinguished, leading to a reduction in craving for cigarettes when exposed to that particular cue.

The effectiveness of CET was demonstrated in a study by Unrod et al. (2014) involving 76 moderately dependent smokers. The results showed that within six sessions of CET, there was a progressive decline in cue-provoked craving. This suggests that by systematically exposing individuals to smoking cues and breaking the conditioned association between the cues and nicotine reinforcement, CET can effectively reduce craving and potentially aid in nicotine addiction treatment.

 

 

END OF QUESTIONS

 

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