How well did you or your student do on the Psychology A-Level May/June 2026? -PAPER 3 (Model Answers)

Section A: Issues and Debates

Q1 (2 marks)

What is meant by a free will approach in psychology?

Model Answer:
A free will approach suggests that individuals have control over their behaviour and make their own conscious decisions. This means behaviour is not determined by internal or external forces.

Q2 (2 marks)

'It is inappropriate to take a free will approach in psychology.' Outline one reason why some psychologists might say this.

Model Answer:
One reason is that behaviour can be explained by determinism, such as biological or environmental factors. This suggests that behaviour is influenced by forces outside of conscious control, making free will difficult to apply scientifically.

Q3 (4 marks)

Most behaviours, like playing football, can be explained at different levels.
Outline what psychologists mean by levels of explanation and suggest how playing football can be explained at two different levels.

Model Answer:
Levels of explanation refer to describing behaviour from different perspectives or layers, ranging from simple biological processes to more complex social influences.

For example, playing football can be explained at a biological level, such as brain coordination and muscle movement. It can also be explained at a social level, such as teamwork, social interaction, and motivation to compete.

Q4 (16 marks)

Discuss social sensitivity in psychological research. Refer to one or more topics in your answer.

Model Answer:

Social sensitivity refers to the potential consequences that psychological research may have on individuals or groups, particularly if findings are used in ways that may cause harm, stigma, or discrimination. Research is considered socially sensitive when it affects how people are perceived or treated in society, such as studies on mental illness, intelligence, or criminal behaviour.

One issue with socially sensitive research is that findings can be misused to justify negative stereotypes or discrimination. This is because research may be oversimplified or taken out of context, leading to harmful assumptions about certain groups. For example, biological explanations of mental illness may suggest individuals have less control over their behaviour. This is problematic because it can lead to labelling and stigma. However, it could be argued that such research helps to identify causes of behaviour and reduce blame on individuals. Even though there is a risk of misuse, this research is still valuable in health, as understanding mental illness can lead to more effective treatments and improved support for individuals.

Another issue is the psychological impact on participants involved in socially sensitive research. This is because individuals may feel judged, labelled, or distressed, particularly in studies related to intelligence, mental health, or behaviour. For example, participants may develop a negative self-concept if findings suggest something undesirable about their abilities or traits. This raises ethical concerns about harm and the protection of participants. However, ethical guidelines such as informed consent, confidentiality, and debriefing help to reduce these risks. Even though harm cannot always be completely avoided, research remains important in health, as it helps professionals better understand and support individuals experiencing psychological difficulties.

A further issue is how research findings are communicated to the public. This is because the media may exaggerate or misrepresent findings, leading to misunderstanding and reinforcing stereotypes. For example, research into aggression or criminal behaviour may lead to certain groups being unfairly associated with violence. This is problematic because it can influence public attitudes and policy unfairly. However, psychologists can minimise this risk by carefully presenting findings and highlighting limitations. Even though misinterpretation is possible, psychological research is still essential in health, as it raises awareness of issues such as mental health and encourages more informed and supportive societal responses.

 

 

 

 

Section B: Relationships

Q5 (4 marks)

Describe one phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown.

Model Answer:
One phase is the intrapsychic phase, where one partner becomes dissatisfied with the relationship. They begin to focus on the negative aspects and may think about ending the relationship. At this stage, the individual keeps their feelings to themselves rather than discussing them. This marks the beginning of the relationship breakdown.

Q6 (2 marks)

A researcher was interested in factors affecting attraction. The researcher investigated the relationship between similarity in attitudes and levels of attraction in couples. There were two co-variables.
Co-variable 1: Similarity of attitude score 1–10 (a high score indicates a high level of attitude similarity).
Co-variable 2: Levels of attraction score 1–10 (a high score indicates a high level of attraction).
Explain why the variables above are referred to as co-variables.

Model Answer:
They are referred to as co-variables because both similarity of attitude score and level of attraction score are measured rather than manipulated. This means the researcher is examining the relationship between the two variables rather than establishing cause and effect.

Q7 (3 marks)

What level of measurement is the data collected in this study? Explain your answer.

Model Answer:
The data is ordinal. This is because the scores from 1–10 represent a ranking of similarity and attraction. However, the intervals between each score are not equal, so it cannot be considered interval data.

Q8 (1 mark)

Suggest an appropriate inferential test that could be used to analyse the data from this study.

Model Answer:
Spearman’s rho

Q9 (2 marks)

The researcher concluded that there was a strong positive relationship between the two co-variables.
In your answer book, roughly sketch a graph that the researcher might produce using the data they collected. Label the axes on your graph.

Model Answer:
A scattergraph showing points increasing from bottom left to top right, indicating a positive correlation.
The x-axis should be labelled “Similarity of attitudes” and the y-axis should be labelled “Level of attraction.”

 

Q10 (4 marks)

Describe one other study of a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships. Refer to both procedure and findings in your answer.

Model Answer:
One study is by Kerckhoff and Davis, who investigated similarity and complementarity in relationships. They used questionnaires to assess attitudes and personality traits in couples at different stages of relationships. They found that similarity of attitudes was important at the beginning of relationships, whereas complementarity became more important in long-term relationships. This shows that different factors influence attraction at different stages.

Q11 (8 marks)

Describe and evaluate the attachment theory explanation of parasocial relationships.

Model Answer:

The attachment theory explanation suggests that parasocial relationships form due to early attachment experiences. Bowlby proposed that early attachments create an internal working model that influences later relationships. Individuals with insecure-resistant attachment may seek attention and emotional closeness, leading them to form parasocial relationships with celebrities. Those with insecure-avoidant attachment may avoid real-life intimacy and instead form one-sided relationships where there is no risk of rejection.

A strength of this explanation is that it is supported by research evidence. Because studies such as McCutcheon found that individuals with insecure attachment styles are more likely to develop parasocial relationships. This suggests a link between early attachment and later relationship behaviour. However, a limitation is that this explanation is reductionist, as it focuses only on early attachment and ignores other factors such as media exposure or personality. Even though this is a limitation, it still helps psychologists understand why some individuals struggle to form real relationships and instead rely on parasocial ones, making it useful in health, as it can inform interventions to improve social functioning and emotional wellbeing.

 

 

Section B: Gender

Q12 (4 marks)

Describe Klinefelter's syndrome.

Model Answer:
Klinefelter’s syndrome is a genetic condition that affects biological males who have an extra X chromosome (XXY instead of XY). This results in lower levels of testosterone. Individuals may show physical characteristics such as reduced body hair, wider hips, and less muscle development. They may also display more feminine behaviours and may experience infertility.

Q13 (2 marks)

A researcher was interested in gender stability. The researcher investigated the relationship between children's level of gender stability and their attitude towards gender-neutral toys. There were two co-variables.
Co-variable 1: Gender stability score 1–10 (a high score indicates a high level of gender stability).
Co-variable 2: Attitude towards gender-neutral toys score 1–10 (a high score indicates a positive attitude towards gender-neutral toys).
Explain why the variables above are referred to as co-variables.

Model Answer:
They are referred to as co-variables because both gender stability scores and attitudes towards gender-neutral toys are measured rather than manipulated. This means the researcher is examining a relationship between the variables rather than establishing cause and effect.

Q14 (3 marks)

What level of measurement is the data collected in this study? Explain your answer.

Model Answer:
The data is ordinal. This is because the scores from 1–10 represent a ranking of gender stability and attitudes. However, the intervals between each score are not equal, so the data is not interval.

Q15 (1 mark)

Suggest an appropriate inferential test that could be used to analyse the data from this study.

Model Answer:
Spearman’s rho

Q16 (2 marks)

The researcher concluded that there was a strong negative relationship between the two co-variables.
In your answer book, roughly sketch a graph that the researcher might produce using the data they collected. Label the axes on your graph.

Model Answer:
A scattergraph showing points decreasing from top left to bottom right, indicating a negative correlation.
The x-axis should be labelled “Gender stability” and the y-axis should be labelled “Attitude towards gender-neutral toys.”

 

Q17 (4 marks)

Describe one other study in which children's understanding of gender was investigated. Refer to both procedure and findings in your answer.

Model Answer:
One study is by Slaby and Frey, who investigated gender stability using a split-screen technique. Children were shown a film with a male model on one side and a female model on the other. They found that children with gender stability spent longer looking at same-sex models, suggesting they actively seek out information that matches their gender identity.

Q18 (8 marks)

Describe and evaluate one explanation for gender dysphoria.

Model Answer:

One explanation for gender dysphoria is the biological explanation, which suggests it is caused by genetics and hormones. Research has shown that gender dysphoria may be linked to differences in brain structure, such as the BSTc, which is often found to resemble that of the gender the individual identifies with rather than their biological sex. Hormonal influences during prenatal development may also play a role in shaping gender identity.

A strength of the biological explanation is that it is supported by scientific research. Because studies using brain scans have found structural differences in individuals with gender dysphoria, supporting the idea that it has a biological basis. However, a limitation is that this explanation is reductionist, as it focuses only on biological factors and ignores social or psychological influences such as upbringing or cultural expectations. Even though this is a limitation, understanding biological factors is still useful in health, as it can lead to more appropriate medical treatments and support, such as hormone therapy, improving wellbeing for individuals with gender dysphoria.

 

Section B: Cognition and Development

Q19 (4 marks)

Describe one way in which violation of expectation has been tested.

Model Answer:
One way violation of expectation has been tested is using the “drawbridge study” by Baillargeon. Infants were shown a solid screen rotating like a drawbridge. A box was placed behind the screen, making it impossible for the screen to rotate fully. However, in the impossible condition, the screen appeared to rotate through the object. Infants looked for longer at the impossible event, suggesting they expected the object to remain in place and were surprised when it did not.

Q20 (2 marks)

A researcher was interested in scaffolding. The researcher investigated the relationship between children's experience of scaffolding and their attitude towards a novel task. There were two co-variables.
Co-variable 1: Scaffolding experience score 1–10 (a high score indicates a positive experience of scaffolding).
Co-variable 2: Attitude towards a novel problem score 1–10 (a high score indicates a positive attitude to a novel task).
Explain why the variables above are referred to as co-variables.

Model Answer:
They are referred to as co-variables because both scaffolding experience and attitude towards the task are measured rather than manipulated. This means the researcher is examining the relationship between the two variables rather than establishing cause and effect.

Q21 (3 marks)

What level of measurement is the data collected in this study? Explain your answer.

Model Answer:
The data is ordinal. This is because the scores from 1–10 represent a ranking of scaffolding experience and attitudes. However, the intervals between the scores are not equal, so it is not interval data.

Q22 (1 mark)

Suggest an appropriate inferential test that could be used to analyse the data from this study.

Model Answer:
Spearman’s rho

Q23 (2 marks)

The researcher concluded that there was a strong positive relationship between the two co-variables.
In your answer book, roughly sketch a graph that the researcher might produce using the data they collected. Label the axes on your graph.

Model Answer:
A scattergraph showing an upward trend from bottom left to top right, indicating a positive correlation.
The x-axis should be labelled “Scaffolding experience” and the y-axis should be labelled “Attitude towards a novel task.”

 

Q24 (4 marks)

Describe one other study in which scaffolding was investigated. Refer to both procedure and findings in your answer.

Model Answer:
One study is by Wood and Middleton, who investigated how mothers support children in problem-solving tasks. Children were asked to complete a construction task while their mothers provided help when needed. They found that the most successful children had mothers who adjusted their level of support according to the child’s needs. This showed that effective scaffolding involves gradually reducing support as the child becomes more capable.

Q25 (8 marks)

Describe and evaluate research into conservation.

Model Answer:

Research into conservation was conducted by Piaget, who investigated whether children understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance. In one task, children were shown two identical rows of counters. When one row was spread out, younger children believed it had more counters, showing they had not yet developed conservation. Piaget found that children under the age of around 7 were unable to conserve, suggesting cognitive development occurs in stages.

A strength of research into conservation is that it has provided important insights into children’s cognitive development. Because Piaget demonstrated that thinking changes qualitatively with age, which has influenced educational practices. However, a limitation is that Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities, as later research by McGarrigle and Donaldson showed that children performed better when tasks were more meaningful. Even though this is a limitation, research into conservation is still useful in education, as it helps teachers understand that children at different ages think differently, allowing them to adapt teaching methods to match developmental stages and improve learning outcomes.

 

 

 

 

Section C: Schizophrenia

Q26 (1 mark)

Which of the following is not a neural correlate of schizophrenia?

Model Answer:
C Specific candidate genes

Q27 (6 marks)

Dr Smith is discussing her patient, Penny, who has schizophrenia.
'Penny struggles to think straight, her thoughts are confused and her words do not make sense. Her sentences are jumbled and impossible to understand. Penny cannot tell whether the voices she hears are her own ideas or other people's ideas. She often believes people are talking about her and trying to hurt her. She has known me for years but she frequently doesn't recognise me and she often forgets to take her medication.'
Use your knowledge of cognitive explanations for schizophrenia to explain Dr Smith's comments.

Model Answer:

One cognitive explanation for schizophrenia is dysfunctional thought processing, where individuals experience poor information processing. This can result in disorganised thinking and speech. Penny’s “jumbled” sentences suggest problems in processing and organising thoughts.

Another explanation is deficits in meta-representation, which means individuals cannot recognise that their thoughts are self-generated. This explains why Penny cannot tell whether the voices are her own or someone else’s, leading to hallucinations.

Finally, deficits in central control mean individuals cannot suppress automatic responses, which may explain why Penny struggles to focus, forgets to take medication, and misinterprets situations, such as believing others are talking about her.

Q28 (1 mark)

Briefly state how typical antipsychotics work.

Model Answer:
Typical antipsychotics work by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, reducing dopamine activity.

Q29 (8 marks)

Evaluate drug therapy for schizophrenia.

Model Answer:

A strength of drug therapy is that it is effective at reducing symptoms of schizophrenia. Because antipsychotic drugs such as chlorpromazine reduce dopamine activity, which is linked to positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions. However, a limitation is that drugs can cause serious side effects, such as tardive dyskinesia or weight gain, which can reduce quality of life. Even though this is a limitation, drug therapy is still useful in health, as it provides a biological treatment that can stabilise individuals and allow them to function more normally, often making other therapies more effective.

Q30 (8 marks)

Diagnosis of schizophrenia can be difficult due to issues such as co-morbidity, bias and symptom overlap.
Discuss how one or more of these issues might affect the diagnosis of schizophrenia.

Model Answer:

One issue affecting diagnosis is symptom overlap, where symptoms of schizophrenia are similar to other disorders such as depression or bipolar disorder. This can make it difficult to distinguish between conditions.

A limitation of diagnosis is co-morbidity, where schizophrenia occurs alongside other disorders. Because individuals may experience multiple conditions at the same time, it becomes difficult to identify which symptoms belong to which disorder, reducing diagnostic accuracy.

Another issue is cultural bias, where diagnosis may be influenced by cultural misunderstandings. For example, hearing voices may be interpreted differently in different cultures, leading to overdiagnosis in some groups.

This is problematic because inaccurate diagnosis can lead to inappropriate treatment and stigma. However, classification systems such as the DSM attempt to standardise diagnosis and reduce bias. Even though these issues exist, understanding them is important in health, as improving diagnostic accuracy can lead to better treatment plans and improved patient outcomes.

 

 

Section C: Eating Behaviour

Q31 (1 mark)

Which of the following does not describe the role of the hypothalamus in eating behaviour?

Model Answer:
C The hypothalamus secretes leptin

Q32 (6 marks)

Georgia is obese. She is talking to her friend.
'I've tried all kinds of diets over the years. I obsess over calories and how to limit portion size. But then I get miserable and feel starving, so I raid the fridge. Once I start on a bucket of ice-cream, I can't stop. I never feel full. In the end I weigh more than when I started dieting.'
Use your knowledge of psychological explanations for obesity to explain Georgia's comments.

Model Answer:

One psychological explanation of obesity is restraint theory, which suggests that dieting involves cognitive restriction of food intake. This can lead to disinhibition, where individuals overeat after breaking their diet. Georgia’s “obsessing over calories” shows restraint, but when she “raids the fridge,” this reflects disinhibition and loss of control.

Another explanation is the boundary model, which suggests that hunger and satiety are controlled between upper and lower boundaries. Dieting reduces these boundaries, making individuals more likely to overeat once they exceed them. Georgia’s binge eating after dieting shows she has passed her satiety boundary, leading to excessive eating.

Finally, emotional factors play a role, as dieting can increase stress and negative emotions, which can trigger overeating. Georgia describes feeling “miserable,” which may lead to emotional eating and explains why she continues to overeat despite attempts to diet.

Q33 (1 mark)

Briefly state what is meant by modelling in relation to anorexia nervosa.

Model Answer:
Modelling refers to learning behaviour by observing and imitating others, such as adopting eating behaviours seen in role models.

Q34 (8 marks)

Evaluate the social learning theory explanation of anorexia nervosa.

Model Answer:

The social learning theory explanation suggests that anorexia nervosa is learned through observation and imitation of role models, such as media figures who promote thin ideals. Individuals may imitate dieting behaviours and receive reinforcement, such as praise for losing weight, which strengthens the behaviour.

A strength of this explanation is that it is supported by evidence linking media exposure to body dissatisfaction. Because research shows that individuals exposed to thin ideals are more likely to develop disordered eating behaviours. However, a limitation is that this explanation is reductionist, as it focuses only on environmental factors and ignores biological influences such as genetic predisposition. Even though this is a limitation, this explanation is still useful in health, as it highlights the role of media and environment, allowing interventions such as media regulation and education programmes to reduce the risk of developing anorexia.

Q35 (8 marks)

Discuss the evolutionary explanation for food preferences.

Model Answer:

The evolutionary explanation suggests that food preferences have developed through natural selection to increase survival. Humans are biologically predisposed to prefer high-calorie foods, such as those high in sugar and fat, because they provided energy in environments where food was scarce. This explains why individuals may prefer sweet foods and avoid bitter foods, which could have been toxic.

A strength of this explanation is that it has a strong biological basis. Because the preference for energy-rich foods can be explained by survival advantages, supporting evolutionary theory. However, a limitation is that it is deterministic, as it assumes behaviour is biologically driven and does not consider individual choice or cultural influences. Even though this is a limitation, the explanation is still useful in health, as it helps explain modern issues such as overeating and obesity, allowing health professionals to design interventions that consider biological tendencies when promoting healthier eating habits.

 

Section C: Stress

Q36 (1 mark)

Which of the following is not a feature of general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?

Model Answer:
A Chronic stress produces an initial alarm reaction

Q37 (6 marks)

Mungo is stressed. He is talking to his friend.
'It has been bad since me and my partner split up. We had to sell the house and moving was difficult. It all happened over 12 months. Then there were problems at work. Every day there were more and more emails. No matter how hard I work, I can't manage. Now even small things get me down, like the traffic and the weather.'
Use your knowledge of sources of stress to explain Mungo's comments.

Model Answer:

One source of stress is life changes, which can create disruption and require adjustment. Holmes and Rahe suggested that major life events, such as divorce and moving house, are associated with high stress levels. Mungo’s description of his relationship breakdown and moving house over 12 months shows he has experienced significant life changes, which would increase stress.

Another source is daily hassles, which are minor but frequent stressors. Kanner argued that these can have a cumulative effect on stress levels. Mungo describes daily work problems, such as emails and workload, as well as smaller frustrations like traffic and weather, showing how daily hassles contribute to his stress.

Work-related stress is also evident, as excessive workload and lack of control can increase stress levels. Mungo states he “can’t manage,” suggesting high demands and low control, which are key factors in occupational stress.

Q38 (1 mark)

Briefly state what is meant by biofeedback.

Model Answer:
Biofeedback is a technique where individuals are given real-time information about their physiological processes to help them gain control over them.

Q39 (8 marks)

Evaluate biofeedback as a way of managing and coping with stress.

Model Answer:

Biofeedback works by providing individuals with information about physiological responses such as heart rate or muscle tension, allowing them to learn how to control these responses through relaxation techniques. Over time, individuals can reduce stress by managing their body’s responses more effectively.

A strength of biofeedback is that it is supported by research evidence. Because studies such as Budzynski et al. found that individuals using biofeedback showed reduced muscle tension and reported lower stress levels. However, a limitation is that biofeedback requires training, equipment, and commitment, making it less practical for some individuals compared to simpler stress management techniques. Even though this is a limitation, biofeedback is still useful in health, as it provides a non-invasive method for managing stress, helping individuals reduce physiological symptoms and improve overall wellbeing without relying on medication.

Q40 (8 marks)

Discuss physiological measures of stress.

Model Answer:

Physiological measures of stress involve assessing biological responses to stress, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and hormone levels like cortisol. These measures provide objective data about how the body responds to stressors and are often used in laboratory settings to assess stress levels.

A strength of physiological measures is that they are objective and not affected by self-report bias. Because measures such as heart rate monitors provide accurate data, this increases the reliability of results. However, a limitation is that these measures may lack validity, as physiological responses such as increased heart rate can be caused by factors other than stress, such as exercise or excitement. Even though this is a limitation, physiological measures are still useful in health, as they allow professionals to monitor stress levels accurately and develop interventions to reduce long-term health risks such as high blood pressure or cardiovascular disease.

 

Section D: Aggression

Q41 (1 mark)

A researcher is interested in aggression in computer games. The researcher wants to devise a category system of aggressive behaviours for a content analysis of a popular computer game. The behaviours in the category system need to have face validity.
Suggest one observable aggressive behaviour for the category system that would have face validity.

Model Answer:
A character hitting or physically attacking another character.

Q42 (3 marks)

Outline one way to assess the reliability of the observations in the content analysis.

Model Answer:
One way to assess reliability is inter-observer reliability, where more than one observer records the same behaviour independently. The results are then compared to see if there is agreement between observers. High agreement indicates the observations are reliable.

Q43 (4 marks)

Outline one or more limitations of dispositional explanations for aggression in prisons.

Model Answer:
One limitation is that dispositional explanations focus only on internal traits such as personality. This ignores situational factors, such as overcrowding or lack of privacy, which can also increase aggression. Another limitation is that it may be reductionist, as it oversimplifies behaviour by focusing only on individual differences rather than considering environmental influences.

Q44 (16 marks)

Describe and evaluate the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

Model Answer:

The frustration-aggression hypothesis suggests that aggression is the result of frustration, which occurs when an individual is prevented from achieving a goal. Dollard et al. proposed that frustration always leads to aggression, and aggression is always caused by frustration. Berkowitz later revised this idea, suggesting frustration creates a readiness for aggression, but environmental cues such as weapons are required to trigger aggressive behaviour. For example, when an individual is blocked from achieving a goal, such as winning a game, this can lead to feelings of frustration, which may result in aggressive responses.

One strength of the frustration-aggression hypothesis is that it is supported by research evidence. Because studies such as Barker et al. found that children who experienced frustration were more likely to show aggressive behaviour. This supports the idea that frustration can lead to aggression. However, a limitation is that frustration does not always lead to aggression, as individuals may respond in different ways such as withdrawal or problem-solving. This reduces the validity of the theory as it is not a universal explanation. Even though this is a limitation, the theory is still useful in crime, as it helps explain why aggression may occur in situations where individuals experience frustration, such as in prisons or high-stress environments, and can inform strategies to reduce aggressive incidents.

Another strength is that Berkowitz’s revision improves the original theory by recognising the role of environmental cues. Because the presence of aggressive cues, such as weapons, increases the likelihood of aggression. This is supported by research showing that aggression is more likely in settings where such cues are present. However, a limitation is that the theory still does not account for cultural or social influences, which can affect how individuals respond to frustration. This suggests the explanation is not comprehensive. Even though there are limitations, understanding the role of frustration and environmental triggers remains useful in crime, as it can help inform policies to reduce aggressive behaviour by minimising frustration and removing aggressive cues from environments such as schools or prisons.

 

Section D: Forensic Psychology

Q45 (1 mark)

A researcher is interested in anger in offenders. The researcher wants to devise a category system of angry behaviours for a content analysis of a video recording in a prison setting. The behaviours in the category system need to have face validity.
Suggest one observable angry behaviour for the category system that would have face validity.

Model Answer:
Shouting or raising voice aggressively at another person.

Q46 (3 marks)

Outline one way to assess the reliability of the observations in the content analysis.

Model Answer:
One way to assess reliability is inter-observer reliability, where two or more observers independently record behaviours. Their results are then compared to check for consistency. High agreement between observers indicates the observations are reliable.

Q47 (4 marks)

Outline one or more limitations of the top-down approach to offender profiling.

Model Answer:
One limitation is that the top-down approach is based on a small sample of organised and disorganised offenders, which reduces generalisability. It may not apply to all crimes, especially those that do not follow clear patterns. Another limitation is that it is too simplistic, as it categorises offenders into two types when behaviour is often more complex and overlapping.

Q48 (16 marks)

Describe and evaluate differential association theory.

Model Answer:

Differential association theory suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through interaction with others. Sutherland proposed that individuals learn criminal behaviour through associations with people who hold pro-criminal attitudes. This learning includes techniques for committing crime and beliefs that justify criminal behaviour. The likelihood of offending depends on the frequency, intensity, and duration of exposure to these influences. For example, if an individual is exposed to others who support criminal behaviour, they are more likely to adopt similar behaviours.

One strength of differential association theory is that it is supported by research evidence. Because studies have shown that individuals in criminal environments are more likely to offend, suggesting behaviour is influenced by social learning. This provides support for the idea that criminal behaviour is learned. However, a limitation is that the theory is deterministic, as it suggests individuals will inevitably become criminal if exposed to criminal influences, which ignores the role of free will. Even though this is a limitation, the theory is still useful in crime, as it helps explain how criminal behaviour develops and can inform interventions such as rehabilitation programmes that aim to change social influences and reduce offending.

Another strength is that the theory can explain different types of crime, including white-collar crime, as it focuses on learning behaviour rather than biological factors. This makes it a more flexible explanation. However, a limitation is that it is difficult to test scientifically, as it is hard to measure the precise influence of different social interactions on behaviour. This reduces the reliability of the theory. Even though this is an issue, understanding social influences on behaviour remains valuable in crime, as it can help develop preventative strategies such as mentoring schemes or community programmes to reduce exposure to criminal influences and lower crime rates.

 

Section D: Addiction

Q49 (1 mark)

A researcher is interested in gambling addiction. The researcher wants to devise a category system for a content analysis of positive images of gambling in gambling advertisements. The behaviours in the category system need to have face validity.
Suggest one observable positive gambling image for the category system that would have face validity.

Model Answer:
A person winning money and celebrating in a gambling advertisement.

Q50 (3 marks)

Outline one way to assess the reliability of the observations in the content analysis.

Model Answer:
One way to assess reliability is inter-observer reliability, where two observers independently record behaviours in the advertisement. Their results are then compared to check for agreement. High agreement indicates that the observations are reliable.

Q51 (4 marks)

Outline one or more limitations of behavioural interventions to reduce addiction.

Model Answer:
One limitation is that behavioural interventions focus only on observable behaviour and ignore biological factors such as genetic predisposition. This means they may not fully address the underlying causes of addiction. Another limitation is that behaviour change may not be long-lasting, as individuals may relapse once reinforcement or support is removed.

Q52 (16 marks)

Describe and evaluate the brain neurochemistry explanation for nicotine addiction.

Model Answer:

The brain neurochemistry explanation suggests that nicotine addiction is caused by the effects of nicotine on neurotransmitters in the brain, particularly dopamine. Nicotine stimulates the release of dopamine in the brain’s reward system, especially in the nucleus accumbens, creating pleasurable feelings. Over time, repeated nicotine use leads to changes in brain chemistry, meaning individuals become dependent on nicotine to maintain these feelings. When nicotine levels drop, withdrawal symptoms occur, encouraging continued use.

One strength of the brain neurochemistry explanation is that it is supported by scientific research. Because studies have shown that nicotine increases dopamine activity in the reward pathways of the brain, which explains why smoking is reinforcing and addictive. This provides strong biological evidence for the explanation. However, a limitation is that it is reductionist, as it focuses only on biological processes and ignores psychological and social factors, such as peer influence or stress, which can also contribute to addiction. Even though this is a limitation, the explanation is still useful in health, as it has led to the development of treatments such as nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), which helps reduce withdrawal symptoms and supports individuals in quitting smoking.

Another strength is that the explanation has clear real-world applications. Because understanding the role of neurotransmitters has allowed for the development of medications that target addiction, improving treatment effectiveness. However, a limitation is that not all individuals who use nicotine become addicted, suggesting that other factors, such as individual differences, also play a role. This reduces the explanatory power of the theory. Even though this is a limitation, understanding brain neurochemistry remains important in health, as it helps professionals design more effective interventions and prevention strategies, ultimately reducing the negative health impacts of smoking.

 

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