How well did you or your student do on the Psychology A-Level June 2025 PAPER 3? (Model Answers)
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Issues and debates in psychology
Answer all questions in this section.
01
A researcher tested the musical ability of two groups of children. The parents of children in Group 1 were professional musicians. The parents of children in Group 2 did not play a musical instrument.
The researcher found that the children in Group 1 had significantly higher musical ability scores than the children in Group 2
Use your knowledge of two different types of determinism to explain the findings in Group 1 and Group 2
[4 marks]
One type of determinism that can explain the findings is biological determinism. This suggests that the higher musical ability in Group 1 may be due to genetic factors inherited from their parents, who are professional musicians. This implies musical talent is biologically predetermined.
Another explanation is environmental determinism, which suggests that the children in Group 1 may have developed better musical ability due to being raised in a musically rich environment, with exposure to music and instruments at home, which would influence their development.
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02
The researcher also tested the motor (movement) skills of the children in Group 1 using a newly devised test
The measures of central tendency for the motor skills test were as follows Mean 20.5. Mode = 30, Median = 25.5
Use the measures of central tendency to identify the type of distribution of scores in the motor skills test. Explain your answer.
[2 marks]
The distribution is negatively skewed.
This is because the mean is lower than both the median and the mode, suggesting that a small number of low scores pulled the mean down, which is typical of a negatively skewed distribution.
03
Explain how the researcher could modify the motor skills test so that it would be more likely to produce a set of scores that is normally distributed
[2 marks]
The researcher could increase the number of test items to better sample a range of motor skills, reducing the impact of outliers.
They could also pilot the test with a larger and more diverse sample to ensure it fairly represents typical motor skill performance and adjust any overly easy or difficult items.
04
The researcher noticed that a lot of the children who did well on the musical ability test also seemed to do well on the motor skills test
Suggest how the researcher could use the existing data to investigate the relationship between musical ability and motor skills.
[4 marks]
The researcher could use a correlational analysis to investigate the relationship between musical ability and motor skills.
They would need to plot the scores for each child on a scattergram to visually inspect the relationship.
Then, they could calculate a correlation coefficient (e.g. Pearson’s r) to determine the strength and direction of the relationship.
This would show whether higher musical ability is associated with better motor skills, without implying causation.
05
Explain what is meant by cultural relativism in psychology Use one topic you have studied in psychology as part of your explanation.
[4 marks]
Cultural relativism is the idea that psychological theories and behaviours should be understood within the context of the culture in which they occur, rather than being judged by the standards of another culture.
It recognises that what is considered 'normal' or 'abnormal' may vary across cultures.
For example, in the topic of attachment, Ainsworth’s Strange Situation reflects American cultural norms and assumes that secure attachment involves the child being distressed when the mother leaves.
However, in Japanese culture, where children are rarely separated from their mothers, this may result in higher distress levels, not because the attachment is insecure but because of cultural differences.
06
Discuss the idiographic approach to psychological investigation
[8 marks]
The idiographic approach to psychological investigation focuses on studying individuals as unique cases rather than attempting to generate general laws of behaviour. It uses qualitative methods such as case studies, unstructured interviews, and personal diaries to gain a rich, detailed understanding of human experience. This approach contrasts with the nomothetic approach, which involves studying large groups and using statistical analysis to make generalisations.
One strength of the idiographic approach is that it provides rich, detailed insights into human behaviour. This is because it explores the complexity of individuals’ thoughts, emotions, and experiences in depth. As a result, it can uncover aspects of behaviour that might be overlooked by large-scale quantitative studies. For example, Freud’s case study of Little Hans offered valuable insights into the development of phobias and the Oedipus complex. These findings contributed to psychoanalytic theory and generated new hypotheses, showing how the idiographic approach can influence wider psychological understanding.
However, a limitation of the idiographic approach is that it often lacks scientific rigour. This is because the data collected is subjective and difficult to replicate, making it less reliable than nomothetic methods. For instance, findings from a single case study may not apply to others, which limits generalisability. This is a problem for psychology as a science, where replicability and objectivity are important. However, some psychologists argue that the idiographic approach still has value in applied settings, such as clinical psychology, where understanding the individual in depth is more important than general rules.
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Section B
Relationships or Gender or Cognition and development
Choose one topic from Section B. Answer all questions on the topic you choose.
Topic: Relationships
07
Mike and Dan are talking about their 10-year relationship Dan says, "I'd hate to start again with someone new. It could never be the same with anyone else. We've had some great holidays and fun with our friends. Mike agrees: "Just look at the lovely home we have boilt together and the things we've saved up for and chosen together. Also, who would have the cats?"
Explain how Rusbull's investment model of romantic relationships can be applied to the conversation between Mike and Dan
[4 marks]
Rusbult’s investment model suggests that commitment in romantic relationships depends on three factors: satisfaction, alternatives, and investment.
Dan’s comment reflects low perceived alternatives – he says it could never be the same with anyone else, suggesting he sees no better option than staying with Mike.
He also refers to their shared past experiences, like holidays and time with friends, which represent investments that have built up over time.
Mike agrees and mentions their home and possessions, which are also tangible investments in the relationship.
Both partners’ focus on these shared experiences and resources suggests a high level of commitment, which is central to Rusbult’s model.
08
Briefly evaluate absence of gating as a factor in virtual relationships.
[4 marks]
One strength of the absence of gating in virtual relationships is that it allows people to form connections without being judged on superficial features such as physical appearance or shyness. This is because online platforms remove many of the barriers—or 'gates'—that might prevent people from engaging socially in face-to-face contexts. As a result, individuals may feel more comfortable expressing themselves and forming deeper, more meaningful relationships based on personality and self-disclosure. However, a potential drawback is that this openness can also allow people to misrepresent themselves, which may undermine trust and damage the relationship once offline contact is made.
09
A relationship psychologist studied what people say about themselves in descriptions on dating websites. Here is one description.
"My name is Joy I am a teacher and I have a degree in economics. I live in Essex I cycle to work because I care about the environment. I enjoy walking and like to cook in my spare time. I am looking for a partner who enjoys good food and is good at doing repairs around the house because I'm not very practical"
Discuss the filter theory of romantic relationships. Refer to Joy in your answer.
[16 marks]
Filter theory, proposed by Kerckhoff and Davis (1962), explains how romantic relationships develop by suggesting that we use a series of filters to narrow down potential partners from a large pool of possible people. The theory identifies three main filters: social demography, similarity in attitudes, and complementarity of needs.
The first filter, social demography, refers to variables such as age, location, education, and social background. These factors affect the likelihood of people meeting and starting a relationship. The second filter is similarity in attitudes, which becomes important for couples in the early stages of a relationship. Shared beliefs and values help promote communication and self-disclosure. The third filter, complementarity, becomes more relevant in long-term relationships and refers to how well partners' traits complement each other—i.e., whether one partner meets the other's emotional or practical needs.
In Joy’s case, several aspects of her dating profile suggest how the filter theory might apply. Firstly, her mention of being a teacher with a degree and living in Essex highlights social demographic factors, suggesting she may be looking for someone of similar educational or geographical background. Secondly, Joy states that she cycles to work because she cares about the environment and enjoys walking and cooking, which suggests she is likely to be attracted to someone who shares similar values and interests—fitting the second filter of similarity in attitudes. Finally, she says she is looking for someone “good at doing repairs around the house because I’m not very practical,” showing a clear example of complementarity, where she seeks a partner who can offer practical skills that she lacks.
One strength of filter theory is that it has face validity—it reflects real-life dating experiences where people often choose partners who live nearby, share similar values, and balance their strengths and weaknesses. This is because filtering based on shared features makes relationships easier to initiate and maintain. As a result, the theory is seen as a useful explanation of how romantic relationships progress in stages. However, some critics argue that in the age of online dating, where people connect across different demographics, the importance of initial social demography may be declining, which limits the relevance of the theory in modern contexts.
On the other hand, a limitation of filter theory is that it may lack temporal validity, as it was developed in the 1960s using American students in short-term relationships. This is a problem because modern relationships are more diverse, and people may prioritise different factors at different life stages. For example, complementarity may be less important than shared goals or communication style in some long-term relationships. However, the theory still offers a useful framework for understanding how attraction can develop and change over time, especially in traditional dating contexts.
Topic: Gender
10
Cal is 6 years old. He admires his father, who is a lawyer. Cal tells his school friends, "My daddy is clever and important. Cal often sees his father using the laptop for work meetings. Sometimes, when no one is around, Cal sits in front of the laptop and pretends to talk to people. When his sister comes into the room, Cal says, "Be quiet, I'm doing important work because I'm a clever lawyer
Explain how the concepts of identification and internalisation can be applied to the description of Cal's behaviour.
[4 marks]
Cal is showing identification because he admires and wants to be like his father, who he sees as a role model. He recognises his father’s status as a clever and important lawyer and begins to copy his behaviour.
Cal is also showing internalisation, as he has taken on his father’s values and behaviours as his own. This is shown when he imitates working on the laptop and even tells his sister he is doing “important work” because he is a “clever lawyer,” suggesting he has absorbed these ideas into his self-concept.
11
Briefly evaluate the influence of sex-role stereotyping on gender.
[4 marks]
Sex-role stereotyping can restrict individual development. Stereotypes encourage rigid beliefs about how males and females should behave, such as expecting boys to be assertive and girls to be nurturing. This can limit personal choices and affect self-esteem, particularly if a child’s interests or traits don’t align with these expectations. However, growing social awareness and education around gender equality are helping to challenge these stereotypes, meaning their influence may be less powerful in today’s society.
12
A psychologist observes 3-year-old Leela playing at home. Leela spends most of her time dressing up and playing with the toy kitchen. She ignores her brother's toys like his toy cars and garage Later, the psychologist asks Leela about nursery school. Leela tells the psychologist all about the girls and the games the girls play, but she hardly ever mentions what the boys do.
Discuss gender schema theory Refer to Leela in your answer.
[16 marks]
Gender schema theory, proposed by Martin and Halverson, suggests that children develop their understanding of gender through cognitive schemas—mental frameworks that organise knowledge about gender-related behaviours, roles, and characteristics. According to the theory, children begin forming these gender schemas around the age of two or three, as soon as they have established a basic understanding of their own gender identity. Once this is achieved, children actively seek out information from their environment that aligns with their gender and use this to shape their behaviour and understanding of what is considered appropriate for boys and girls.
The theory explains that children are not passive recipients of gendered information but actively attend to and remember information that is consistent with their gender schema, while often ignoring or forgetting information that does not fit. For example, a young girl might pay more attention to activities seen as 'for girls', such as dressing up or playing with dolls, and less attention to activities deemed more appropriate for boys. As children grow older, their schemas become more complex, but early-established schemas continue to influence their preferences and behaviour.
Leela’s behaviour clearly reflects gender schema theory. At three years old, she already shows a preference for gender-stereotyped activities like dressing up and playing with a toy kitchen. This suggests she has formed a gender schema that associates these types of play with being a girl. She also ignores her brother’s toys, such as cars and a garage, which indicates that she may view these as inconsistent with her gender identity. Furthermore, when asked about nursery, Leela focuses on what the girls do and says very little about the boys. This supports the idea that children selectively attend to same-gender information and incorporate it into their developing schemas.
One strength of gender schema theory is that it explains why children tend to hold rigid gender beliefs from an early age. This is because once children develop a gender identity, they actively seek out behaviours and roles that align with their gender and ignore those that do not. As a result, they often adopt stereotypical gender roles, like Leela choosing to play with the toy kitchen instead of her brother’s toys. This is supported by research such as Martin and Halverson’s own studies, which show that children are more likely to remember gender-consistent information than gender-inconsistent information. However, while the theory explains the early development of gendered behaviour well, it does not account for why some children are more flexible in their gender roles or why some reject stereotypes entirely.
A limitation of gender schema theory is that it underestimates the role of social and cultural influences. While the theory focuses on cognitive development, it tends to overlook how reinforcement from parents, peers, and the media can shape children’s gendered behaviour. For example, Leela’s interest in stereotypically feminine toys may not only be due to internal schemas but also because she has been praised or encouraged to play with them by adults or has seen similar roles in books and TV shows. This is a problem because it suggests the theory provides an incomplete explanation. However, supporters argue that gender schema theory and social learning theory can complement each other, with schemas providing the structure and social influences guiding content.
Topic: Cognition and development
13
Mario is 4 years old. His mother is watching him use bricks to build a tower. She shows him how to put two bricks together, then the suggests that he looks for a big blue brick. When he can I find the right one, she shows it to him. He takes the brick and places it on top of another brick. "Well done, Mano. Now which one goes next?" she asks. After a while his mother sits back and watches as Mario completes the tower .
Explain how Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development can be applied to the Interactions between Mario and his mother.
[4 marks]
Vygotsky’s theory can be applied to the interaction between Mario and his mother through the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is the gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.
Mario’s mother supports his learning by scaffolding—she demonstrates how to join bricks, prompts him to find the correct one, and offers encouragement. This helps Mario achieve a task he couldn’t complete independently. As he becomes more capable, she gradually withdraws support, which reflects Vygotsky’s idea that guidance should be reduced as the child develops competence.
14
Briefly evaluate research into perspective-taking
[4 marks)
One strength of research into perspective-taking is that it has helped to understand how children develop social cognition. Selman’s levels of perspective-taking show that children become increasingly able to understand others’ viewpoints as they grow older, supporting the idea that this ability develops in stages. This is useful because it has real-world applications, such as informing educational strategies and interventions for children with social difficulties. However, a limitation is that Selman’s research relied heavily on hypothetical scenarios, which may not accurately reflect how children behave in real-life social situations, reducing the ecological validity of the findings.
15
Two mothers are discussing their babie. Sunny is 3 months old and Gina is several months older. Sunny's mother says, "He can wave his arms around and kick his legs. He loves the noise when he hits his rattle. He used to do it by accident, now he's starting to do it on purpose.”
Gina's mother says, "She can get hold of things now. She keeps getting her teddy and throwing it for me to pick up. If I hide it, she reaches under the cushion to get it."
Discuss Piagets theory of cognitive development in the sensorimotor stage. Refer to Sunny and Gina in your answer.
[16 marks]
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children go through four universal stages of development. The first of these is the sensorimotor stage, which occurs from birth to around two years of age. During this stage, infants learn about the world through their senses and motor activities, such as seeing, touching, grasping, and moving. They begin with reflex actions and gradually move towards goal-directed behaviour as they gain more control over their movements and begin to understand cause and effect.
A key feature of the sensorimotor stage is the development of object permanence—the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. According to Piaget, this typically emerges around 8 months of age. Children also start to develop intentional actions, recognising that their behaviour can produce predictable outcomes, such as shaking a rattle to make a sound. This marks the move from accidental to purposeful behaviour and is an important milestone in early cognitive development.
We can apply Piaget’s theory to both Sunny and Gina. Sunny is 3 months old and is beginning to realise that shaking his rattle produces a sound, which shows the development of intentional behaviour—a key aspect of the sensorimotor stage. Initially, his actions were accidental, but he is now repeating them on purpose, suggesting cognitive progress. In contrast, Gina is slightly older and shows signs of object permanence when she reaches under a cushion to retrieve her teddy. This indicates that she understands the toy still exists even when she cannot see it, which is a major developmental milestone according to Piaget. Her behaviour also shows a more advanced level of motor coordination and purposeful interaction with her environment.
One strength of Piaget’s theory is that it was based on detailed observations of children, which provided valuable insights into early cognitive development. This is because Piaget carefully recorded how children interacted with their environment and adapted his theory based on what he observed. As a result, the sensorimotor stage remains influential and has helped shape early years education and parenting practices. However, Piaget often observed his own children and used small, unrepresentative samples, which may limit the generalisability of his findings to a wider population.
A limitation of Piaget’s theory is that later research suggests he underestimated infants' abilities. For example, studies using more sensitive methods—such as Baillargeon's research using the violation of expectation technique—have found that infants as young as 3 months may show signs of object permanence. This challenges Piaget’s claim that such understanding only develops around 8 months of age. However, supporters argue that Piaget’s theory remains valuable as a broad framework for understanding developmental stages, even if the exact timings of cognitive milestones need revising.
Section C
Schizophrenia or Eating behaviour or Stress
Choose one topic from Section C. Answer all questions on the topic you choose.
Topic: Schizophrenia
16
Describe and evaluate family therapy as a treatment for schizophrenia.
[8 marks]
Family therapy is a psychological treatment for schizophrenia that involves working with both the individual and their family members. Its aim is to reduce levels of expressed emotion (EE) within the family, such as criticism, hostility, or emotional over-involvement, which are linked to higher relapse rates. Sessions often focus on improving communication, problem-solving skills, and understanding the condition, helping families become more supportive and less reactive.
One strength of family therapy is that it has been shown to reduce relapse rates in people with schizophrenia. This is because it helps to improve family dynamics and lower expressed emotion, which are known triggers for relapse. As a result, patients are more likely to remain stable and continue with treatment. For example, research by Pharoah et al. (2010) found that family therapy significantly reduced hospital readmissions compared to standard care. However, while relapse rates decrease, the therapy does not typically reduce the severity of symptoms, so it may need to be used alongside medication for full effectiveness.
A limitation of family therapy is that it requires the active involvement of relatives, which may not always be possible or desirable. This is because some families may be unwilling, unavailable, or contribute to stress rather than provide support. This could reduce the effectiveness of the therapy or even make the situation worse. In addition, it assumes that family dysfunction is a key contributor to schizophrenia, which may not apply to all cases. However, for those families who are willing to participate, the therapy can still provide long-term benefits in terms of communication and support.
17
Discuss the diathesis-stress model as a way of explaining schizophrenia.
[16 marks]
The diathesis-stress model explains schizophrenia as the result of an interaction between biological vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental stressors. According to this approach, individuals inherit a predisposition to schizophrenia, such as genetic factors or abnormalities in brain structure or function, but the disorder will only develop if triggered by stressful life experiences. This model supports a more holistic view, suggesting that neither nature nor nurture alone is sufficient to explain the onset of schizophrenia.
Earlier versions of the model focused on a single ‘schizogene’, implying that schizophrenia had a purely genetic basis. However, more recent research suggests a polygenic model, meaning that several genes contribute to vulnerability. Similarly, the ‘stress’ component has evolved from focusing solely on family dysfunction or trauma to include biological stressors such as drug abuse, urban living, and prenatal complications. This flexibility makes the model a useful framework for understanding the complexity of schizophrenia.
One strength of the diathesis-stress model is that it is supported by research evidence from both genetic and environmental studies. This is because twin and adoption studies show that schizophrenia is more likely in individuals with a genetic predisposition, especially when combined with stressful life events. For example, Tienari et al. (2004) found that adopted children with a biological mother with schizophrenia were more likely to develop the disorder when raised in a dysfunctional family. This supports the idea that both genetic diathesis and environmental stress are important. However, not all individuals with a genetic risk go on to develop schizophrenia, which suggests that environmental factors alone are not sufficient either.
Another strength is that the model has practical applications for treatment and prevention. Understanding that both biological and psychological factors play a role has led to the development of integrated treatments, such as combining antipsychotic medication with family therapy or cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). This is useful because it acknowledges the complexity of the disorder and offers a more personalised approach to care. However, in some healthcare systems, access to psychological therapies may be limited, making it harder to deliver fully integrated care in practice.
A limitation of the diathesis-stress model is that it is difficult to measure stress and vulnerability precisely. This is because stress can include a wide range of experiences, from social adversity to substance use, and diathesis may involve subtle genetic or neurobiological differences. This lack of clarity can make it hard to test the model in controlled research settings. Furthermore, it may lead to vague or inconsistent definitions, which undermines the scientific reliability of the approach. However, the model’s flexibility also allows for the inclusion of new findings, such as the role of cannabis use or urban environments, which keeps it up to date.
Another weakness is that the model can sometimes oversimplify the complexity of schizophrenia by implying a straightforward cause-and-effect interaction. This is problematic because schizophrenia is likely the result of multiple interacting influences, including culture, individual coping mechanisms, and social support. Relying too heavily on a diathesis-stress explanation might ignore these wider contextual factors. However, the model remains valuable as a framework that encourages researchers and clinicians to look beyond single-cause explanations and consider both biological and environmental influences.
Topic: Eating behaviour
18
Describe and evaluate the boundary model explanation for obesity.
[8 marks]
The boundary model, proposed by Herman and Polivy (1984), explains obesity in terms of biological and cognitive boundaries that regulate eating. According to the model, eating behaviour is controlled by two boundaries: the hunger boundary, which signals when we need to eat, and the satiety boundary, which signals when to stop. People of normal weight tend to eat between these two boundaries. However, in individuals who are obese or dieting, cognitive factors override biological signals, meaning they may ignore feelings of fullness and continue eating until they hit a self-imposed limit—often well beyond natural satiety.
One strength of the boundary model is that it helps to explain why dieting can actually lead to overeating in some individuals. This is because the model highlights how restrained eaters often rely on cognitive controls, such as dieting rules, rather than internal biological signals like fullness. When these cognitive controls fail—for example, after breaking a diet—disinhibition can lead to binge eating. Research supports this, with restrained eaters shown to consume more food after violating their dietary rules. However, not all obese individuals show this pattern, suggesting the model may not apply equally to everyone.
A limitation of the boundary model is that it places too much emphasis on cognitive control, while underestimating the role of emotional and environmental factors. For example, people may eat in response to stress, boredom, or the availability of highly palatable food, regardless of their cognitive boundaries. This is problematic because it reduces the model’s ability to account for the full range of behaviours that lead to obesity. However, the model still provides a useful framework for understanding how internal and external factors interact, especially in cases of restrained eating.
19
Discuss the role of neural and hormonal mechanisms involved in the control of eating behaviour.
[16 marks]
Neural and hormonal mechanisms play a vital role in the control of eating behaviour. One key neural mechanism involves the hypothalamus, particularly the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH). The LH is thought to trigger feelings of hunger when glucose levels fall, while the VMH signals satiety, or the feeling of fullness, helping to stop eating. These areas work together to maintain energy balance in the body.
Hormonal mechanisms also influence appetite. For example, ghrelin is a hormone released from the stomach when it is empty, stimulating the LH to create the sensation of hunger. Conversely, leptin is produced by fat cells and signals to the hypothalamus that the body has sufficient energy stores, helping to suppress appetite. These hormones interact with the brain to regulate food intake, highlighting the close link between biological processes and eating behaviour.
One strength of neural and hormonal explanations is that they are supported by scientific evidence from animal studies. For instance, lesioning the LH in rats leads to a loss of interest in food and weight loss, while damage to the VMH causes overeating and obesity. This suggests that these brain areas do play a key role in regulating hunger and satiety. These findings are highly controlled and can be replicated, increasing their reliability. However, there are differences between animal and human physiology and behaviour, so care must be taken when generalising the results.
Another strength is that hormonal explanations have real-world applications for understanding and treating obesity. For example, research into leptin has led to the development of treatments aimed at increasing leptin sensitivity in individuals with obesity, where normal appetite-suppressing signals may not function correctly. This shows that biological research can have practical benefits beyond theory. However, the effectiveness of such treatments varies greatly between individuals, suggesting that hormonal control of eating is not the only factor involved in obesity.
A limitation of these explanations is that they may be reductionist, as they oversimplify the complexity of eating behaviour by focusing only on biological mechanisms. Eating is influenced by a wide range of psychological, emotional, and environmental factors, such as mood, stress, or social context. Ignoring these factors may limit the explanatory power of neural and hormonal models. However, these biological explanations still offer a strong foundation, especially for understanding the regulation of hunger and satiety.
Another weakness is that much of the evidence comes from correlational studies, which cannot establish cause and effect. For instance, while high ghrelin levels are associated with increased hunger, this does not prove that ghrelin directly causes eating behaviour—it could be that other factors are involved. This limits the internal validity of such findings. However, experimental studies involving hormonal injections and brain scans have provided more direct support, partially addressing this concern.
Topic: Stress
20
Describe and evaluate the role of social support in coping with stress.
[8 marks]
Social support refers to the psychological and practical resources provided by others that help an individual cope with stress. It can be emotional (e.g. empathy, love, or understanding), instrumental (e.g. practical help like money or assistance), or informational (e.g. advice or guidance). Social support is thought to reduce the negative impact of stress by improving emotional well-being and buffering the physiological effects of stress responses, such as high blood pressure or cortisol levels.
One strength of social support in coping with stress is that there is strong research evidence showing it reduces the harmful effects of stress. For example, Kamarck et al. found that participants who had a friend present during a stressful task showed lower physiological stress responses than those who were alone. This suggests that the presence of supportive others can buffer the impact of stress and promote resilience. However, not all social support is helpful—sometimes well-meaning support can increase stress if it is perceived as intrusive or unhelpful.
A limitation is that the effectiveness of social support can vary between individuals and situations. Some people may not seek or benefit from support due to personality factors like introversion or cultural norms that emphasise independence. This makes it difficult to generalise findings across populations. Additionally, if the support network is also stressed or unavailable, the protective effect may be reduced. However, recognising these differences can help tailor stress interventions to suit individual needs, making support more effective in practice.
21
Discuss individual differences in stress.
[16 marks]
Individual differences in stress refer to how people vary in their physiological, emotional, and behavioural responses to stressors. These differences can be influenced by personality types, gender, and hardiness levels. For example, Type A personalities—characterised by competitiveness, hostility, and time urgency—are thought to be more prone to stress-related illnesses like coronary heart disease (CHD). In contrast, Type B personalities tend to be more relaxed and less reactive to stress.
Hardiness is another key concept and consists of three components: commitment, control, and challenge. People who score high in hardiness are believed to be more resilient in stressful situations, viewing stressors as challenges rather than threats. Additionally, gender differences may play a role, with research suggesting that males are more likely to use problem-focused coping strategies, while females may use emotion-focused or social support-based strategies. These individual differences influence both the perception of stress and the strategies used to cope with it.
One strength of research into individual differences in stress is that it has practical applications for stress management and health interventions. For example, identifying individuals with Type A traits or low hardiness can help target support strategies like cognitive behavioural therapy or resilience training. This is useful because it allows interventions to be tailored to an individual’s personality, making them more effective. However, these traits may interact with other factors such as lifestyle and social support, so interventions may need to address a broader range of influences.
Another strength is that research into personality and stress is supported by longitudinal and large-scale studies. For instance, the Western Collaborative Group Study followed over 3,000 men and found that those with Type A behaviour were significantly more likely to develop CHD. This provides strong evidence for a link between personality and health outcomes. However, later follow-up studies found that hostility, rather than the full Type A profile, was the main risk factor. This challenges the idea that personality alone determines stress vulnerability.
One limitation of this area of research is that personality-based explanations can be deterministic. Suggesting that someone is more likely to suffer from stress-related illness because they have a certain personality type may ignore the role of choice, change, or situational factors. This is a problem because it could lead to labelling and reduce personal responsibility. However, understanding these traits can still be useful for predicting risk and prompting early interventions.
Another weakness is that gender-based explanations of stress coping may be overly simplistic or stereotypical. While studies show general trends in male and female coping strategies, they often ignore individual and cultural variation. For example, not all women rely on social support, and some men may prefer emotional expression. Relying too heavily on gendered assumptions may therefore lead to inaccurate conclusions. Nevertheless, exploring these trends has helped psychologists consider a wider range of coping mechanisms beyond the traditional male-dominated research focus.
Section D
Aggression or Forensic psychology or Addiction
Choose one topic from Section D. Answer all questions on the topic you choose.
Topic: Aggression
22
Which one of the following is a consequence of desensitisation?
Write the correct letter in your answer book.
[1 mark]
A Increased sympathetic nervous system arousal when viewing violent images makes aggression less likely.
B Increased sympathetic nervous system arousal when viewing violent images makes aggression more likely.
C Reduced sympathetic nervous system arousal when viewing violent images makes aggression less likely
D Reduced sympathetic nervous system arousal when viewing violent images makes aggression more likely
D – Reduced sympathetic nervous system arousal when viewing violent images makes aggression more likely.
23
Which one of the following is the best example of how disinhibition might lead to aggression?
Write the correct letter in your answer book.
[1 mark]
A People playing violent computer games become aggressive because they imitate the aggressive behaviour of other players.
B People playing violent computer games become aggressive when they see aggressive trigger cues in the game.
C People playing violent computer games feel anonymous so feel less responsible for their aggressive actions.
D People playing violent computer games see lots of aggression so it appears normal and does not bother them
C – People playing violent computer games feel anonymous so feel less responsible for their aggressive actions.
24
Briefly outline the evolutionary explanation for human aggression.
[2 marks]
The evolutionary explanation suggests that human aggression has developed through natural selection because it increased the chances of survival and reproduction. Aggressive behaviours, such as defending territory or eliminating rivals, helped individuals compete for resources and mates, making them more likely to pass on their genes.
25
Briefly evaluate the evolutionary explanation for human aggression.
[4 marks]
One strength of the evolutionary explanation is that it is supported by cross-cultural evidence showing common patterns of aggression related to competition and mate protection. This is because behaviours such as male jealousy and violence in response to infidelity are found in many societies, suggesting an evolved biological basis. These universal patterns support the idea that aggression may have been naturally selected. However, a limitation is that the explanation is deterministic, as it assumes aggressive behaviour is biologically fixed and ignores the influence of free will or social and environmental factors, such as upbringing or peer pressure.
26
Max is a first-time offender in Oddmin Prison. He describes his experiences.
"Most of the day we are in our cells. We have little choice in anything, not even what we eat or what's on TV. There is nothing to do. It's so boring. There is a pool table but you can never get near it. Same with the books, there's hardly any I wish my girlfriend could visit but it's too far away. It's quite scary in here. You have to stick up for yourself and be tough to survive."
Discuss the situational explanation of institutional aggression in the context of prisons. Refer to Max's experiences in your answer
[16 marks]
The situational explanation of institutional aggression, specifically in the context of prisons, is best explained by the Deprivation Model, proposed by Clemmer (1958). This model argues that aggression in prisons results from the harsh conditions and environment rather than individual characteristics. It focuses on how deprivation of basic needs—such as autonomy, security, meaningful activity, and social contact—can lead to frustration, which then manifests as aggression.
According to this explanation, prisons create environments that undermine normal behaviour, causing prisoners to adapt through aggression or violence. Factors contributing to this include loss of freedom, lack of access to goods and services, boredom, fear, and social isolation. These environmental pressures increase stress and reduce a prisoner’s ability to cope, leading to confrontations with other inmates or staff.
Max’s experiences in Oddmin Prison reflect many elements of the deprivation model. He reports a lack of autonomy, saying that he has “little choice in anything, not even what we eat or what’s on TV.” This loss of control is a key source of frustration. He also notes a lack of stimulation, describing the environment as boring with limited access to books or the pool table—this represents deprivation of meaningful activity. Furthermore, Max experiences social deprivation, as he is unable to see his girlfriend due to distance. He also refers to the prison being “scary” and the need to “be tough to survive,” suggesting a climate of fear and insecurity, which can provoke aggressive behaviour as a form of self-protection. These factors all support the situational explanation for institutional aggression.
One strength of the deprivation model is that it is supported by research evidence showing links between prison conditions and aggressive behaviour. For example, studies have found higher levels of violence in overcrowded prisons with poor facilities and limited activities. This supports the idea that aggression is not just due to the individual, but also to the stressful and depriving prison environment. Such findings are useful because they have led to changes in prison policy, such as increasing access to education and work programmes. However, not all prisoners in deprived environments become aggressive, suggesting that individual differences may also play a role.
A limitation of the situational explanation is that it ignores dispositional factors, such as personality traits or pre-existing aggressive tendencies. This is problematic because research has shown that inmates with a history of violence are more likely to be aggressive in prison regardless of the environment. For example, the Importation Model argues that prisoners bring their traits and experiences with them into the institution, which influence how they behave. Therefore, the deprivation model may oversimplify the causes of institutional aggression. However, it remains a valuable framework for understanding how environmental stressors can escalate aggression even in individuals without a violent past.
Topic: Forensic psychology
27
Which one of the following best explains the role of atavistic form in offending?
Write the correct letter in your answer book
[1 mark]
A People offend because of a body type that enables violence.
B People offend because they are primitive and cannot conform to societal rules.
C People offend because they are tough so they do not fear punishment.
D People offend because they have facial characteristics typical of offenders
B – People offend because they are primitive and cannot conform to societal rules.
28
Which one of the following describes Eysenck's criminal personality type?
Write the correct letter in your answer book
[1 mark]
A Someone with a high extraversion score and a low neuroticism score, who is impulsive and unstable.
B Someone with a high neuroticism score and a high extraversion score, who is impulsive and unstable
C Someone with a high neuroticism score and a high introversion score, who is unstable and lacks empathy.
D Someone with a low extraversion score and a high neuroticism score, who is unstable and lacks empathy
B – Someone with a high neuroticism score and a high extraversion score, who is impulsive and unstable.
29
Briefly outline one aim of custodial sentencing.
[2 marks]
One aim of custodial sentencing is incapacitation, which means protecting the public by removing offenders from society so they cannot commit further crimes. This is especially important for dangerous or repeat offenders.
30
Briefly evaluate custodial sentencing as a way of dealing with offending behaviour
[4 marks]
One strength of custodial sentencing is that it can act as a deterrent to prevent both the individual and others from committing crimes. This is because the unpleasant experience of prison such as loss of freedom and exposure to a harsh environment serves as a punishment that discourages future offending. This is useful as it may reduce crime rates and reinforce the seriousness of breaking the law. However, reoffending rates remain high in many countries, suggesting that prison does not always lead to long-term behaviour change.
31
Debi is a thief. She describes what she thinks about her crimes to a newspaper reporter.
"I like having good stuff, like a big TV and a nice mobile phone. It's exciting to take other people's stuff and it doesn't hurt anyone. Nobody cares. The police don't bother me. I've been doing it for years and I never get caught, so it's OK. If I do get caught, it would only be a tiny fine, so that's nothing. My mates show me respect - they know I can get them whatever they want."
Discuss level of moral reasoning as an explanation for offending Refer to Debi's comments in your answer.
[16 marks]
The level of moral reasoning explanation, based on Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, suggests that individuals progress through stages of moral reasoning as they mature. These stages range from pre-conventional (focused on self-interest and avoiding punishment), to conventional (based on social rules and laws), and finally to post-conventional (based on universal ethical principles). Kohlberg argued that criminals often remain at lower levels of moral reasoning, meaning their decisions are guided by personal gain rather than societal values.
According to this theory, those who commit crimes are more likely to be in the pre-conventional stage, where right and wrong are judged by what is personally rewarding or what avoids punishment, rather than any concern for others or the law. Individuals at this level may believe that breaking the law is acceptable if it benefits them and the consequences are minimal.
Debi’s comments clearly reflect pre-conventional moral reasoning. She justifies stealing by saying it gets her things she likes, such as a big TV and mobile phone, showing her focus on personal gain. She also shows little concern for the victims, saying “it doesn’t hurt anyone” and that “nobody cares,” indicating a lack of empathy or social responsibility. Furthermore, she says the punishment would only be “a tiny fine,” which shows that she considers the consequences minor and not a reason to change her behaviour. Her statement that her friends respect her for stealing also shows that her actions are guided by peer approval, which is common at lower stages of moral reasoning.
One strength of the level of moral reasoning explanation is that it has research support from Kohlberg and others, showing that offenders tend to show lower levels of moral development than non-offenders. This is because studies using moral dilemma tasks have found that criminals are more likely to reason at the pre-conventional level. This helps explain why they might commit crimes for personal gain or show little concern for the law. However, the use of hypothetical dilemmas in such research may not accurately reflect how people behave in real-life situations, limiting the validity of the findings.
A limitation of Kohlberg’s theory is that it may be culturally biased, as it is based on Western ideals of morality. In some cultures, what is considered morally mature may differ—for example, obedience to authority or community values may be prioritised over individual rights. This makes it difficult to apply Kohlberg’s stages universally. Additionally, moral reasoning does not always translate into behaviour. Some individuals may be able to reason at a high level but still commit crimes due to other factors like peer pressure, addiction, or emotional impulsivity.
Topic: Addiction
32
Which one of the following best explains the role of cue reactivity in addiction?
Write the correct letter in your answer book
[1 mark]
A Where a craving for nicotine acts as primary reinforcer in certain environmental conditions.
B Where a craving for nicotine acts as secondary reinforcer in certain environmental conditions
C Where an association is formed so that a primary reinforcer elicits cravings for nicotine
D Where an association is formed so that a secondary reinforcer elicits cravings for nicotine
D – Where an association is formed so that a secondary reinforcer elicits cravings for nicotine.
33
Which one of the following best explains the role of dopamine in nicotine addiction?
Write the correct letter in your answer book
[1 mark]
A Nicotine increases dopamine action in the brain, inhibiting the reward pathway leading to feelings of euphoria
B Nicotine increases dopamine action in the brain, stimulating the reward pathway leading to feelings of euphoria.
C Nicotine reduces dopamine action in the brain, inhibiting the reward pathway leading to feelings of euphoria
D Nicotine reduces dopamine action in the brain, stimulating the reward pathway leading to feelings of euphoria
B – Nicotine increases dopamine action in the brain, stimulating the reward pathway leading to feelings of euphoria.
34
What is meant by risk factors in addiction?
[2 marks]
Risk factors in addiction are variables or conditions that increase the likelihood of an individual developing an addiction. These can include genetic vulnerability, stress, personality traits, peer influence, and family environment. They do not guarantee addiction but make it more probable.
35
Briefly evaluate the role of risk factors in addiction.
[4 marks]
One strength of research into risk factors in addiction is that it helps identify people who may be more vulnerable, allowing for early intervention and prevention strategies. This is because studies have shown that factors like genetic predisposition or high levels of stress are linked to increased likelihood of addictive behaviour. For example, individuals with a family history of addiction may be more carefully monitored or offered targeted support. However, not everyone exposed to these risk factors goes on to develop an addiction, suggesting that the relationship is complex and influenced by protective factors such as strong social support or personal resilience.
36
Ash is talking to a friend about why he plays online computer games all the time.
"I always feel stressed and everything is a lot better if I join an online gaming session. It just takes my mind off things and everything improves if I can escape into a good game. I live on my own and work from home, so it's boring at night. When online friends suggest a gaming session, it's great to play for an evening and have fun competing We all join in because nobody wants to spoil the party or be left out."
Discuss cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) as a way of reducing addiction. Refer to Ash's comments in your answer.
[16 marks]
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) is a psychological treatment used to reduce addiction by helping individuals recognise and change maladaptive thoughts and behaviours that contribute to their addictive habits. CBT focuses on identifying cognitive distortions (such as denial or rationalisation), challenging them, and replacing them with more balanced and realistic thinking. A key component of CBT for addiction is functional analysis, where the therapist and client explore the triggers, thoughts, and consequences surrounding the addictive behaviour.
Another core aspect is skills training, which involves helping the person develop new coping strategies to replace the addictive behaviour. These may include techniques for managing stress, improving social skills, or resisting peer pressure. CBT aims to empower the individual to take control of their behaviour by developing a better understanding of their addiction and learning how to manage cravings and high-risk situations without relapsing.
Ash’s comments show how CBT could be applied to help him manage his gaming addiction. For example, he says he feels “stressed” and that gaming helps “take his mind off things.” This suggests that he may be using games as a way of coping with negative emotions, which CBT could help him address by teaching him alternative coping strategies, such as relaxation techniques or time management. Ash also mentions that he lives alone and feels bored at night, pointing to social and emotional triggers that a functional analysis could explore. Finally, the pressure to join friends online “because nobody wants to be left out” could be addressed in CBT through assertiveness training or techniques for resisting social influence.
One strength of CBT for addiction is that it gives individuals practical tools for managing their behaviour. This is because it focuses on building self-awareness and developing coping strategies, which can reduce reliance on addictive behaviours when faced with stress or social pressure. Research has shown that CBT can be particularly effective when combined with other treatments, such as medication or support groups, improving long-term outcomes. However, CBT requires high levels of motivation and commitment from the client, which may be difficult for some individuals struggling with addiction to maintain.
A limitation of CBT is that it may not address underlying emotional or social causes of addiction. In Ash’s case, issues such as loneliness and social isolation appear to be significant contributing factors to his gaming behaviour. While CBT can help him change the way he thinks and behaves, it may not resolve the deeper emotional needs that drive his addiction. This is a problem because relapse may occur if these root issues are left unaddressed. However, integrating CBT with other therapies, such as counselling or group support, could provide a more holistic approach to treatment.
*Disclaimer
This resource was created for educational purposes and is not endorsed by or affiliated with AQA. The exam questions are used under fair dealing for review and commentary.
Questions sourced from AQA A-Level Psychology Paper 3, June 2025.
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