Learning Approaches -Paper 2 Model Answers (AQA Psychology)

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Paper 1 Summer (2023) Model Answers 

 

 

Outline the way in which Pavlov studied classical conditioning. ( 4 marks)

Model Answer

Pavlov studied classical conditioning by conducting experiments involving the pairing of stimuli and the subsequent elicitation of conditioned responses. Pavlov first identified a stimulus that naturally elicits an automatic and unlearned response. This stimulus is known as the unconditioned stimulus (US), and the response it naturally elicits is the unconditioned response (UR). For example, in Pavlov's famous experiment with dogs, the UCS was the presentation of food, and the UCR was the dogs' salivation in response to the food.

Pavlov then introduced a neutral stimulus that initially does not elicit the desired response. This neutral stimulus is known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). In his experiments, Pavlov used a bell or a metronome as the CS.

Pavlov repeatedly paired the presentation of the US (food) with the CS (bell or metronome). This pairing was done in close temporal proximity, so that the CS preceded the US. For example, Pavlov would ring the bell (CS) and then immediately present the food (US).

Over time and through repeated pairings, the neutral CS becomes associated with the US. Eventually, the CS alone is able to elicit a response similar to the UR. This learned response is known as the conditioned response (CR). In Pavlov's experiment, the dogs eventually started salivating (CR) in response to the bell (CS) alone, even in the absence of the food (US).

 

Lily and Jemima have a pet rat, which usually hides in a corner when they try to take it out of its cage. They have tried different ways to stop the rat hiding, but so far without success.

Use your knowledge of two types of reinforcement to suggest how Lily and Jemima could train their rat to come to the cage door when they open it. ( 6 marks)

Model Answer

To train their pet rat to come to the cage door when it is opened, Lily and Jemima can utilise positive reinforcement. First, they need to define the desired behaviour, which is the rat approaching the cage door. They can then choose a motivating reward such as a small piece of the rat's favourite food.

Using positive reinforcement, Lily and Jemima should open the cage door and immediately present the reward when the rat comes near or approaches the door. It is essential to time the reward delivery accurately to reinforce the desired behaviour. By consistently repeating this process every time they open the cage door and the rat moves closer to the door, they can establish an association between the behaviour and the reward, encouraging the rat to approach the door more often.

Additionally, Lily and Jemima can utilise negative reinforcement techniques. Negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen a desired behaviour. In this case, Lily and Jemima can create a situation where the rat can escape an aversive stimulus by approaching the cage door.

First, they need to identify an aversive stimulus that the rat wants to avoid. For example, they can introduce a mild noise or a temporary blocking object in the corner where the rat usually hides. This creates a situation where the rat feels uncomfortable or restricted in its hiding spot.

Next, Lily and Jemima should open the cage door and simultaneously remove or eliminate the aversive stimulus. By doing so, they provide an opportunity for the rat to escape the unpleasant situation by approaching the cage door. This creates a negative reinforcement scenario where the desired behaviour of coming to the door is reinforced by the removal of the aversive stimulus.

 

Carissa has just started learning to knit and she watches carefully when her aunt is knitting. She thinks about how her aunt holds the needles and how she pulls the wool through her fingers. Carissa wonders if she can do the same with her needles and wool. She tries to copy her aunt’s actions as she wants her knitting to be neat and accurate.

Referring to Carissa’s experiences, explain the role of mediational processes in learning.( 4 marks)

Model Answer

Firstly, motivation is a key mediational process in Carissa's learning experience. Her desire to knit neatly and accurately serves as a motivational factor that drives her to observe her aunt's knitting closely. Carissa's motivation to achieve a specific outcome, such as replicating her aunt's knitting technique, enhances her engagement and willingness to learn.

Secondly, attention is another crucial mediational process in Carissa's learning. She pays careful attention to her aunt's knitting movements, focusing her concentration on how her aunt holds the needles and manipulates the wool. By directing her attention to these details, Carissa can acquire relevant information that will guide her own knitting attempts.

Retention is the third mediational process involved in Carissa's learning. After observing her aunt's knitting technique, Carissa engages in cognitive processes to retain and store the information in her memory. She reflects on her aunt's actions, mentally representing the steps involved in knitting. By retaining this information, Carissa can access it later when she attempts to reproduce the knitting movements.

Lastly, reproduction is a critical mediational process that enables Carissa to imitate her aunt's actions. Drawing upon her motivation, attention, and retention, Carissa tries to reproduce her aunt's knitting technique using her own needles and wool. Through trial and error, she applies the mental representations she formed during observation and attempts to replicate the desired knitting movements.

 

A teacher investigated the effects of operant conditioning using two separate groups of eight-year-old children:
Group A: the teacher rewarded a class of children with smiley stickers on their classwork as well as the usual ticks and comments.
Group B: the teacher rewarded a different class of children with only the usual ticks and comments on their classwork.
After two weeks, the teacher calculated the average classwork score for the children in Group A and the average classwork score for the children in Group B.

The results are in the table below.

Outline one difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning. (2 marks)

Model Answer

In classical conditioning, the association is formed between a previously neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a reflexive response.

On the other hand, operant conditioning involves the association between a behaviour and its consequence. The focus is on the voluntary behaviours that are influenced by the consequences that follow them.

 

Explain the type of reinforcement being used by the teacher in this investigation.  (3 marks)

Model Answer

The type of reinforcement being used by the teacher in this investigation is positive reinforcement. In Group A, the teacher rewards the children with smiley stickers in addition to the usual ticks and comments on their classwork. Positive reinforcement involves the presentation of a pleasant stimulus, in this case, the smiley stickers, to strengthen and increase the likelihood of the desired behaviour, which is performing well in classwork. By providing the additional reward of smiley stickers, the teacher aims to reinforce and encourage the children's positive academic performance.

 

The teacher concluded that smiley stickers may not have been the only thing that caused the difference in average scores between Group A and Group B. The teacher was concerned because the children in each class were different.

Explain one way the teacher could change the experimental design to deal with this issue. ( 2 marks)

Model Answer

One way the teacher could change the experimental design to deal with the issue of different children in each class is by implementing a randomised control group design. In this design, the teacher would assign the children to either Group A or Group B randomly, ensuring that the distribution of different abilities and characteristics is spread evenly across both groups.

By using random assignment, the teacher can control for potential confounding variables that may affect the results. It helps ensure that any differences observed between Group A and Group B are more likely to be attributed to the specific treatment, which in this case is the provision of smiley stickers.

Alison is a Psychology teacher who is keen to reduce plastic waste in her school. She puts a sticker showing an ocean full of plastic waste on each plastic bottle of water sold in the canteen. Alison asks canteen staff to increase the price of bottled water by 20 pence and offer free refills of water to any student taking in their own bottle. Finally, Alison sets up a bottle return desk, where students can get 20 pence back for any plastic bottle they hand in for recycling.

Describe and evaluate operant conditioning as a way of explaining people’s behaviour. Refer to Alison’s approach to reducing plastic waste in your answer. (16 marks)

Model Answer

Operant conditioning is a psychological concept that helps explain people's behaviour by focusing on the relationship between actions and their consequences. It suggests that individuals are more likely to repeat behaviours that are followed by desirable consequences or rewards, while they are less likely to engage in behaviours that result in undesirable consequences or punishments. Alison's approach to reducing plastic waste in the school can be understood through the lens of operant conditioning.

Firstly, by putting a sticker showing an ocean full of plastic waste on each plastic bottle of water sold in the canteen, Alison is utilising a form of punishment. The sticker serves as a visual reminder of the negative consequences of using plastic bottles, aiming to discourage students from purchasing them. The intention is to associate the use of plastic bottles with negative feelings or guilt, decreasing the likelihood of students choosing them as a result of the aversive stimulus (the sticker).

Secondly, Alison's approach involves the use of positive reinforcement. By increasing the price of bottled water by 20 pence and offering free refills of water to students with their own bottles, she is providing a desirable consequence for the behaviour she wants to encourage. The increased price acts as a deterrent, while the free refills serve as a reward for choosing a more environmentally friendly option. This positive reinforcement aims to strengthen the behaviour of using refillable bottles instead of purchasing single-use plastic bottles.

Lastly, Alison's implementation of a bottle return desk introduces the concept of negative reinforcement. By offering students 20 pence in return for recycling plastic bottles, she creates an opportunity for the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus (the burden of holding onto the bottle) by engaging in the desired behaviour (recycling). The possibility of receiving the monetary reward encourages students to bring back their plastic bottles for recycling, increasing the likelihood of recycling behaviour due to the removal of the aversive stimulus.

One strength regarding operant conditioning is its reductionist nature. Operant conditioning focuses primarily on the relationship between behaviour and its consequences, neglecting other factors that may influence behaviour. Alison's approach to reducing plastic waste, with the use of stickers, price increase, free refills, and bottle return desk, relies heavily on manipulating the consequences associated with plastic bottle use. It assumes that by altering the consequences, such as increasing the price and providing incentives for recycling, students' behaviour will change. While this approach is effective in targeting the specific behaviour of plastic bottle consumption, it overlooks other potential factors that contribute to plastic waste, such as social norms, peer influence, or individual attitudes towards the environment. Thus, operant conditioning provides a reductionist explanation of behaviour in this context.

To support the evaluation of operant conditioning, Skinner's classical study on operant conditioning can be considered. Skinner conducted experiments using the Skinner box, which involved training animals to perform specific behaviours through reinforcement. His findings demonstrated that behaviour could be shaped through the use of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.

Alison's approach aligns with Skinner's findings as she implements similar reinforcement techniques. The price increase on bottled water acts as a punishment for choosing plastic bottles, while the offer of free refills and the bottle return desk provide positive reinforcement for recycling behaviour. This connection to Skinner's classical study strengthens the validity of operant conditioning as an explanation for behaviour in the context of reducing plastic waste.

However, it's important to note that Skinner's research was primarily conducted on animals, and the generalisability of his findings to human behaviour can be questioned. Furthermore, the complexity of human behaviour and the role of cognitive processes are not adequately addressed in Skinner's study, suggesting that a holistic approach incorporating various psychological factors may provide a more comprehensive understanding of people's behaviour in this context.

 

Jamil watches his older brother, Sahib, washing the family car. He sees his brother use a bucket of water and a sponge to clean the car and a hose to rinse it. Their father praises Sahib. Later, the family see Jamil with a bowl of water washing his toy cars.

Use your knowledge of three features of the social learning explanation of behaviour to explain Jamil’s behaviour. (6 marks)

Model Answer

Firstly, imitation plays a significant role in Jamil's behaviour. By observing his older brother, Sahib, washing the family car using a bucket of water and a sponge, Jamil learns the specific actions involved in car washing. He imitates Sahib's behaviour by using a bowl of water to wash his toy cars. This demonstrates the power of observational learning, as Jamil replicates the actions he witnessed, highlighting the role of imitation in shaping his behaviour.

Secondly, Sahib acts as a role model for Jamil. Sahib's behaviour of washing the family car effectively serves as a model for Jamil to follow. Sahib's actions and techniques provide a clear example of how car washing is performed, making him a source of guidance for Jamil. As a younger sibling, Jamil may look up to his older brother and seek to emulate his actions, making Sahib an influential figure in shaping Jamil's behaviour.

Lastly, vicarious reinforcement also contributes to Jamil's behaviour. When their father praises Sahib for washing the car, it serves as a form of reinforcement. Jamil observes this positive reinforcement given to Sahib, indicating that washing the car is a desirable behaviour in their family. As a result, Jamil is more likely to engage in similar behaviour, seeking the potential for praise and approval from his father. This vicarious reinforcement motivates Jamil to imitate Sahib's actions and engage in car washing himself.

 

 

Describe and evaluate the biological approach in psychology.(16 marks) 

Model Answer

The biological approach in psychology is a perspective that focuses on understanding behaviour and mental processes by examining the influence of biological factors. It emphasises the role of genetics, hormones, and brain structure and function in shaping human behaviour. This approach recognises the impact of inherited traits and genetic variations on psychological characteristics.

It also investigates how hormones and neurotransmitters influence behaviour and cognition. Moreover, the biological approach studies the structure and function of the brain to understand how different brain regions are involved in specific cognitive processes and emotional responses. Overall, the biological approach provides insights into the biological basis of behaviour and helps explain individual differences and susceptibility to certain psychological disorders.

The biological approach in psychology has made significant contributions to our understanding of behaviour and mental processes. However, it also faces criticisms and limitations that need to be evaluated. Two important aspects to consider are reductionism and determinism.

Firstly, reductionism is a criticism often directed towards the biological approach. Reductionism refers to the tendency to explain complex phenomena by reducing them to simpler, underlying biological processes. The biological approach focuses heavily on genetics, hormones, and brain structures, sometimes neglecting the influence of environmental and social factors on behaviour. By solely attributing behaviour to biological factors, it can oversimplify the complexity of human behaviour. For example, explaining aggression solely based on the presence of certain neurotransmitters overlooks the influence of environmental and social factors that may contribute to aggressive behaviour. This reductionist view fails to capture the multidimensional nature of human behaviour and the interactions between various factors.

On the other hand, the biological approach is also criticised for its determinism. Determinism suggests that behaviour is determined by biological factors and lacks room for personal agency or free will. By emphasising the influence of genetics and brain processes, the biological approach may suggest that individuals have little control over their actions. However, it is essential to recognise that behaviour is not solely determined by biology but also influenced by environmental and social factors, as well as personal experiences and choices. While biological factors may predispose individuals to certain behaviours or conditions, they do not necessarily determine an individual's actions or choices. The biological approach should be complemented with other perspectives to account for the complexity of human behaviour.

Despite these criticisms, the biological approach in psychology has its strengths. It has provided valuable insights into the genetic basis of psychological traits and disorders. Twin and family studies have helped establish the heritability of certain characteristics, contributing to our understanding of individual differences. Moreover, the study of brain structure and function has provided important knowledge about the neural mechanisms underlying behaviour and cognition. This understanding has led to the development of effective treatments for psychological disorders, such as psychopharmacology.

 

 

According to the biological approach, which of the following statements is TRUE? 

Shade one circle only.

Model Answer

A- Environment may influence the expression of the genotype.

 

According to operant conditioning, which of the following statements is TRUE?

Shade one circle only.

 

Model Answer 

B Negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated.

 

 

Briefly describe one role of the unconscious according to the psychodynamic approach. (2 marks)

Model Answer

According to the psychodynamic approach, one role of the unconscious is to serve as a reservoir for repressed or suppressed thoughts, desires, and memories that are outside of conscious awareness. These unconscious contents can exert a powerful influence on behaviour and contribute to the formation of psychological symptoms and behaviours.

 

 

A television advert for a new cleaning spray, called ‘Tiger’, shows an England rugby player vigorously scrubbing a stain on the carpet.

The rugby player gets exhausted and gives up. A small boy says, ‘Only Tiger power will get that out’ and hands the rugby player a bottle of Tiger. The rugby player draws tiger stripes on his own face, roars and the little boy laughs. The rugby player easily wipes the stain from the carpet using Tiger.

The boy claps and the advert ends with the text, ‘Anyone can battle stains with a Tiger on their side.’

 

 (a)  Explain how the Tiger advert might influence viewers’ mediational processes. ( 6 marks) 

Model Answer

The Tiger advert employs various strategies to influence viewers' mediational processes, including attention, retention, motivation, and reproduction.

The advert effectively captures viewers' attention through the use of attention-grabbing elements. The presence of an England rugby player vigorously scrubbing a stubborn stain on the carpet immediately draws attention. The physicality and intensity of the player's actions, combined with the challenge presented by the stain, make the scene visually compelling and captivating.

The advert also aims to motivate viewers by demonstrating the efficacy of the Tiger cleaning spray. The exhaustion and frustration experienced by the rugby player initially create a relatable scenario. However, when the boy suggests that only Tiger power can remove the stain, it introduces a solution that piques viewers' interest. By showing the rugby player confidently wiping away the stain with Tiger, the advert promotes the idea that using this product can overcome cleaning challenges and achieve successful results.

As well as this, the advert encourages viewers to reproduce the behaviour depicted in the commercial. By presenting the rugby player as a figure of strength and resilience, the advert suggests that using Tiger can empower individuals to conquer their own cleaning tasks. The rugby player drawing tiger stripes on his face and roaring playfully portrays a sense of confidence and success, creating a positive association between using Tiger and accomplishing cleaning goals. This encourages viewers to imitate the depicted behaviour by using Tiger to battle stains in their own lives.

 

 

(b)  The company paid the rugby player a lot of money to be in the advert.

Use your knowledge of social learning theory to explain why the company wanted to use a famous rugby player in the advert. (2 marks) 

Model Answer

Social learning theory suggests that individuals are more likely to identify with and imitate the behaviour of high-status, highly attractive, or celebrity role models. By featuring a well-known rugby player in the advertisement, the company aimed to leverage the player's status and attractiveness to increase the likelihood of viewer identification and imitation therefore increasing the company's sales. 

 

There was an overall increase in sales of Tiger following the advertisement campaign. Interestingly, the increase in sales was greater for male customers than for female customers. See the table below.

(c)  Calculate the percentage increase in sales of Tiger to male customers. Give your answer to two significant figures. (3 marks)

Show your workings.

Model Answer

4688 − 2522 = 2166

100 × (2166/2522) = 0.85884219 × 100 = 85.8842189

Answer = 86%

 

 

(d)  Using your knowledge of social learning theory, suggest how the advert could be modified to increase the sales of Tiger to female customers. (1 mark)

Model Answer

To increase the sales of Tiger cleaning spray to female customers, the advert could be modified by featuring a female role model or a relatable female character. According to social learning theory, individuals are more likely to identify with and imitate behaviours demonstrated by role models who are similar to them in terms of gender, background, or experiences.

 

 

Discuss the contribution of Pavlov’s research to our understanding of human behaviour. (Total 8 marks)

Model Answer

One contribution of Pavlov's research is the identification and exploration of classical conditioning. Through his experiments, Pavlov demonstrated that behaviours can be learned through the association of stimuli and the subsequent elicitation of a conditioned response. This finding highlighted the role of environmental factors in shaping behaviour and challenged the prevailing belief that all behaviour was solely determined by innate factors.

Pavlov's work also provided insights into the mechanisms of learning and the formation of associations. He discovered that neutral stimuli when repeatedly paired with a biologically significant stimulus (such as food), could elicit a response similar to the original stimulus. This process, known as acquisition, revealed the capacity of organisms to form connections between stimuli and responses based on the principles of association and reinforcement.

Pavlov's research has made a substantial contribution to our understanding of human behaviour through his exploration of classical conditioning. His experiments with dogs paved the way for recognising the role of environmental factors in shaping behaviour. By demonstrating that behaviours can be learned through the association of stimuli and the elicitation of conditioned responses, Pavlov highlighted the significance of learning principles in human behaviour.

However, it is important to acknowledge that Pavlov primarily conducted his research with animals, primarily dogs, and there are limitations to generalising his findings directly to human behaviour. Human behaviour is influenced by complex cognitive processes and socio-cultural factors that may not be fully captured by classical conditioning alone. While Pavlov's work provided a foundational understanding of learning and the formation of associations, subsequent advancements in psychology, such as cognitive and social learning theories, have further expanded our understanding of human behaviour by considering additional factors such as perception, memory, and social influences.

Therefore, while Pavlov's research has contributed to our understanding of human behaviour, it should be viewed as part of a broader framework that incorporates multiple perspectives and factors to comprehensively explain the complexities of human behaviour.

 

 

Outline the behaviourist approach. Compare the behaviourist approach with the biological approach.

(Total 16 marks)

Model Answer

The behaviorist approach in psychology focuses on observable behavior and the environmental factors that influence it. It emphasises the importance of studying behavior objectively and rejects the inclusion of internal mental processes such as thoughts, emotions, and subjective experiences. Behaviorists believe that all behavior, whether simple or complex, can be understood and explained through principles of learning, conditioning, and reinforcement.

Behaviorists propose that behavior is a product of the interaction between an individual and their environment. They emphasise the role of stimuli, responses, and the consequences that follow behaviors. The behaviorist approach places a strong emphasis on empirical evidence and the scientific method, aiming to study behavior in a systematic and objective manner. 

In contrast, the biological approach in psychology focuses on the role of biological processes and structures in explaining behavior and mental processes. It explores the influence of genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, hormones, and other physiological factors on behavior. The biological approach seeks to understand how biological factors interact with environmental influences to shape human behavior and mental processes.

While the behaviorist approach prioritises observable behavior and the study of conditioning and reinforcement, the biological approach emphasises the influence of genetic, neurological, and physiological factors on behavior. Behaviorists disregard internal mental processes, while the biological approach recognises the importance of understanding the brain and its functions in explaining behavior.

Furthermore, the behaviorist approach relies heavily on experimental methods, focusing on the manipulation and control of environmental stimuli to predict and modify behavior. In contrast, the biological approach often employs techniques such as brain imaging, genetic studies, and physiological measurements to investigate the biological underpinnings of behavior.

Despite their differences, both approaches have contributed significantly to our understanding of human behavior. The behaviorist approach has provided valuable insights into learning, conditioning, and behavior modification, while the biological approach has shed light on the biological foundations of behavior and the influence of genetics and brain processes. Integrating these perspectives can offer a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior by considering both environmental and biological factors.

 

Outline Skinner’s research into reinforcement. (3 marks) 

Model Answer

In Skinner's research, he used the Skinner box, a controlled environment that allowed him to study the effects of reinforcement on behaviour. In one of his experiments, he placed a hungry rat inside the box and observed its behavior. Initially, the rat's lever pressing behavior was random, but Skinner introduced a reinforcement contingency. When the rat accidentally pressed the lever, a small amount of food was dispensed into a food tray. Over time, the rat learned to associate lever pressing with the food delivery and began to press the lever more frequently. This process demonstrated the power of positive reinforcement in strengthening behaviour.

 

Explain how reinforcement might be used to encourage primary school children to pick up litter in the playground.( 3 marks) 

 Model Answer

To encourage primary school children to pick up litter in the playground, reinforcement strategies can be employed. One approach is to implement a "token economy system" where children earn tokens or points for each piece of litter they collect. These tokens can be exchanged for rewards that the children value.

In the context of direct primary reinforcement, the children would receive immediate rewards or positive reinforcement for their litter-picking efforts. For example, for every 'x' amount of litter they pick up, they would receive a specific reward ('y') such as a small treat, extra playtime, or a sticker. This strategy directly reinforces the desired behavior by associating it with positive outcomes, making litter-picking more appealing and rewarding for the children.

 

Samira and John are talking.

Samira says, ‘Look at your little sister. She’s pretending she’s got a mobile phone like yours and is making a call.’

John replies, ‘Yes. But when she saw me get told off for using my Dad’s favourite pen, she never copied me doing that!’

Describe and evaluate social learning theory. Refer to the conversation above as part of your answer. (16 marks)

Model Answer 

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, suggests that learning takes place in a social context through observation and imitation of others' behavior. It emphasises the role of vicarious reinforcement, where individuals learn by observing the consequences (rewards or punishments) that others receive for their behavior. The conversation between Samira and John provides an example that can be analysed within the framework of social learning theory.

Samira's comment about John's little sister pretending to use a mobile phone demonstrates several aspects of social learning theory. Firstly, it highlights observational learning, as the sister is imitating John's behavior after observing him using a mobile phone. This indicates that individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors they have observed in others. Secondly, it exemplifies the concept of modeling, where other people serve as models for behavior. In this case, John's behavior of using a mobile phone serves as a model for his sister's imitation. The characteristics of the model, such as familiarity and competence, can influence the likelihood of imitation.

John's response further supports social learning theory. He mentions that his sister did not copy his behavior of using his dad's favorite pen, which resulted in him being told off. This demonstrates the impact of vicarious reinforcement. Observing the negative consequences John experienced for using the pen served as a disincentive for his sister to imitate that behavior. This indicates that individuals are selective in their imitative behaviors, considering the consequences that others face for their actions.

One strength of social learning theory is its emphasis on the role of observation and imitation in learning. Unlike other behaviorist approaches that focus solely on reinforcement and punishment, social learning theory recognises that individuals can acquire new behaviors through observational learning. This is supported by research such as Bandura's famous Bobo doll study, where children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to exhibit aggression themselves. This highlights the importance of modeling and the influence of others on an individual's behavior.

Another strength of social learning theory is its recognition of mediational processes. Bandura proposed that attention, retention, motivation, and reproduction are key cognitive processes that influence learning and behavior. By considering these processes, social learning theory provides a more comprehensive explanation of how individuals acquire and perform new behaviors. For example, individuals may pay attention to and retain information about a behavior they observe, but their motivation to reproduce that behavior will depend on factors such as perceived consequences and personal beliefs. This aspect of social learning theory helps explain individual differences in behavior and the complexity of learning processes.

However, social learning theory also has some limitations that should be considered. One criticism is that it may not fully account for the influence of biological and genetic factors on behavior. While social learning theory emphasises the role of environmental factors and social interactions, it may overlook the impact of innate predispositions or biological determinants of behavior. For instance, certain phobias or fears may have a genetic basis that cannot be fully explained by social learning alone.

Another limitation of social learning theory is its reliance on laboratory-based studies, which may not fully capture the complexity of real-world social interactions. Although Bandura's research, such as the Bobo doll study, provided valuable insights into observational learning, it primarily focused on controlled experimental settings. This raises questions about the generalisability of the findings to real-life situations. Additionally, social learning theory places less emphasis on the internal mental processes involved in learning and behavior, such as cognitive and emotional factors. This narrow focus on observable behavior limits the theory's ability to explain the full range of human experiences and motivations.

 

Read the following descriptions of behaviour:

A Sarah is terrified of lifts because she was trapped in one for 5 hours. She cannot go in a lift now.

B Jerry watches as his brother James is given sweets for cleaning their pet hamster’s cage. The next day, Jerry’s mum finds Jerry cleaning out the hamster cage.

How can the behaviours described in A and B above be explained by learning theories? (6 marks)

Model Answer

In the case of behavior A, Sarah's fear of lifts can be explained by classical conditioning. Classical conditioning suggests that behaviors are learned through the association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a response. In this scenario, the traumatic experience of being trapped in a lift for 5 hours serves as an unconditioned stimulus, eliciting fear as an unconditioned response. The lift itself, which was previously a neutral stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that now triggers the conditioned response of fear. Sarah's fear of lifts is a learned response through the process of classical conditioning.

For behavior B, Jerry's observation and subsequent behavior can be explained by operant conditioning. Operant conditioning focuses on the consequences of behavior to determine whether it is likely to be repeated or not. In this case, Jerry observes his brother James being given sweets as a positive reinforcement for cleaning the hamster's cage. Through the process of observational learning, Jerry identifies James as a model and imitates his behavior. Jerry's behavior of cleaning the hamster cage is reinforced by the positive consequence of receiving sweets, increasing the likelihood of him repeating the behavior in the future.

 

Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

A behaviourist researcher studying reinforcement carried out a laboratory experiment. He put a cat in a puzzle box. The cat was able to escape from the puzzle box by pulling on a string which opened the door. Each time the cat escaped it was given a food treat. At first, the cat escaped quite slowly, but with each attempt the escape time decreased.

 (a)     Explain which type of conditioning is being investigated in this experiment? ( 2 marks) 

Model Answer

The type of conditioning being investigated in this experiment is operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it.

In this case, the cat's behavior of escaping from the puzzle box is reinforced by the food treat it receives each time it successfully escapes. The cat's behaviour is voluntary and instrumental in achieving the desired outcome of obtaining the food treat. Through repeated attempts and the reinforcement of receiving food, the cat learns to associate its escape behavior with a positive consequence, leading to a decrease in the time taken to escape the puzzle box.

Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

The data from the laboratory experiment are shown in the table below.

Time taken for the cat to escape from the puzzle box

 

 (b)     Calculate the mean time taken for the cat to escape from the puzzle box. Show your calculations. ( 2 marks) 

Model Answer

Answer= 30.75

246/8

 

 (c)     The researcher compared the time taken for the cat to escape at the first attempt, with the time taken for the eighth attempt. He found that after learning had taken place the cat’s escape time was: Shade one box only. (1 mark) 

 

Model Answer

 D     21 times faster than it was at the start.

 

 

Read the item and then answer the question that follows.

A psychologist carried out a study of social learning. As part of the procedure, he showed children aged 4-5 years a film of a 4 year-old boy stroking a puppy. Whilst the children watched the film, the psychologist commented on how kind the boy was. After the children had watched the film, the psychologist brought a puppy into the room and watched to see how the children behaved with the puppy.

Outline what is meant by social learning theory and explain how social learning might have occurred in the procedure described above. ( 6 marks) 

Social learning theory suggests that learning occurs through observation, imitation, modeling, identification, and vicarious reinforcement. It recognises the role of cognition in the learning process, including factors such as attention, motivation, and memory. 

During the procedure, the children were exposed to a film showing a 4-year-old boy stroking a puppy. This exposure allowed the children to observe the boy's behaviour and actions towards the puppy. By observing the boy, the children had the opportunity to engage in observational learning. They could pay attention to the boy's actions, the way he interacted with the puppy, and the overall behavior displayed in the film.

Furthermore, the presence of a role model, in this case, the boy in the film, may have encouraged identification among the children. The children may have been more likely to relate to and imitate the boy's behavior because he was of the same age as them. Identification plays a crucial role in social learning theory as individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors exhibited by those they identify with.

The psychologist's comments during the film, praising the boy for his kindness, may have acted as vicarious reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement refers to the process in which individuals learn by observing the consequences experienced by others. In this case, the psychologist's positive comments may have made the children more likely to imitate the boy's behavior of stroking the puppy, as they would associate such behavior with praise and approval.

It is important to note that social learning does not always require immediate outward demonstration of learned behavior. The learning may be internalised and exhibited at a later time. In this procedure, even if the children did not immediately display the behavior of stroking the puppy, they may have still internalised the observation and comments, which could influence their future interactions with animals.

 

Discuss two limitations of social learning theory. ( 6 marks) 

Model Answer

One limitation of social learning theory is its tendency to place excessive emphasis on environmental factors while neglecting the influence of innate biological factors and genetic predispositions. Social learning theory primarily focuses on how individuals learn through observation, imitation, and reinforcement in their social environment. However, it tends to downplay the role of biological factors in shaping behavior.

For example, social learning theory may struggle to explain certain behaviors that have a strong genetic component, such as instinctive reflexes or innate fears. These behaviors are not easily learned through observation or imitation, suggesting that biological factors play a significant role in their development. By overlooking the influence of genetic predispositions and innate biological mechanisms, social learning theory provides an incomplete understanding of human behavior.

Another limitation of social learning theory is its limited explanatory power when it comes to complex behaviors. While social learning theory can effectively explain the acquisition of simple behaviors through observation and imitation, it may fall short in accounting for more intricate behaviors that involve multiple cognitive processes and internal mental states.

For instance, social learning theory may struggle to explain the development of complex cognitive processes like problem-solving, decision-making, and abstract thinking. These behaviors involve cognitive processes that go beyond simple observational learning and require higher-order cognitive functions. Social learning theory's primary focus on external influences and direct reinforcement may not adequately capture the complexity of these cognitive processes and the role of internal mental states.

Additionally, social learning theory may have difficulty explaining behaviors that are not directly observed or reinforced in the social environment. Internal mental processes, such as thoughts, emotions, and motivations, can strongly influence behavior but are not always readily observable or directly reinforced by the environment. This limitation suggests that social learning theory may not fully account for the intricate interplay between internal mental processes and external environmental factors in shaping behavior.

 

Outline and evaluate the social learning theory approach. Refer to evidence in your answer.

(Total 16 marks)

Model Answer

The social learning theory approach, developed by Albert Bandura, emphasises the importance of observational learning, imitation, and the role of cognitive processes in shaping human behavior. This approach suggests that individuals learn by observing and imitating the behaviours of others, and that the consequences and reinforcements associated with those behaviors influence the likelihood of their occurrence. The social learning theory approach has made significant contributions to our understanding of behavior, and there is evidence to support its key concepts.

One aspect of social learning theory is observational learning, which involves acquiring new behaviors by observing others. Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated this concept. In the experiment, children who observed an adult model displaying aggressive behaviors towards a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate those behaviors themselves when given the opportunity. This study provided empirical evidence for the influence of observational learning on behavior and highlighted the importance of modeling and imitation in social learning.

Another key concept of social learning theory is vicarious reinforcement. This refers to the process of learning from the positive or negative consequences experienced by others. Bandura and his colleagues conducted studies that demonstrated how vicarious reinforcement influences behavior. For example, in the study of children watching a film of a boy stroking a puppy and receiving positive comments from a psychologist, the children were more likely to imitate the boy's behavior when interacting with a real puppy. This finding supports the idea that observing others being rewarded or praised for certain behaviours increases the likelihood of imitation.

Additionally, social learning theory recognises the role of cognitive processes in learning. Bandura proposed that individuals engage in mediational processes, such as attention, retention, motivation, and reproduction, which influence their learning and behavior. For instance, individuals are more likely to imitate behaviours that they find attractive, relevant, or personally meaningful. The emphasis on cognitive processes distinguishes social learning theory from strict behaviorism and highlights the active role of the learner in the acquisition and execution of behaviours.

Despite its contributions, social learning theory also has limitations. One limitation is that it may underestimate the influence of biological and genetic factors on behavior. Biological predispositions and innate traits can shape behaviour independently of social learning processes. Furthermore, social learning theory does not provide a complete account of how internal mental states, such as thoughts and emotions, interact with the social environment to shape behaviour.

Another limitation is that the focus on observable behavior and external reinforcements may oversimplify the complexity of human behaviour. Social learning theory may not fully capture the influence of internal motivations, individual differences, and contextual factors in shaping behavior. It also places less emphasis on the role of unconscious processes and the impact of early childhood experiences on behaviour.

 

 

Which of the following best describes identification as a feature of social learning?

Shade one box only.( 1 marks) 

Model Answer 

A wanting to be like another person

 

Describe and evaluate the behaviourist approach. ( 16 marks) 

The behaviorist approach suggests that behaviour is shaped by the environment through conditioning, and it emphasises the role of external stimuli and reinforcements in influencing behavior.

One key aspect of the behaviourist approach is classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs. Classical conditioning involves the association of a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring stimulus to elicit a response. Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that can evoke a conditioned response. For example, Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by repeatedly pairing the bell's sound with the presentation of food. This association between the bell and food led to a learned response of salivation even when the food was not present.

Another aspect of the behaviourist approach is operant conditioning, which was extensively studied by Skinner. Operant conditioning focuses on the relationship between behavior and its consequences. According to this approach, behaviours that are followed by positive consequences or rewards are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to occur. Skinner developed the concept of the Skinner box, a controlled environment in which animals, such as rats or pigeons, could learn to associate their behaviours with specific outcomes. By using reinforcement and punishment, Skinner demonstrated how behavior could be shaped and controlled.

One limitation of the behaviourist approach is its focus on external factors and neglect of internal mental processes. Behaviourists primarily emphasise the role of stimuli and reinforcements in shaping behavior, while downplaying the influence of thoughts, emotions, and cognitive processes. This narrow focus limits our understanding of complex human behaviors that cannot be solely explained by external stimuli.

For example, the approach struggles to account for the cognitive processes involved in problem-solving, language acquisition, and creativity, as it disregards the internal mental states that may influence these behaviors. By overlooking these internal processes, the behaviourist approach provides an incomplete explanation of human behaviouur.

Furthermore, the behaviorist approach has been criticised for its overreliance on animal studies and its limited generalisability to human behavior. Much of the initial research in behaviourism was conducted using non-human animals, such as rats and pigeons, in controlled laboratory settings. While these studies have provided valuable insights into learning principles, it is questionable whether the findings can be directly applied to human behavior.

Humans possess unique cognitive abilities, social complexities, and cultural influences that may significantly impact their behaviour. By overlooking these distinctive human characteristics, the behaviourist approach may fail to capture the full complexity and richness of human behaviour in real-world contexts.

 

 Model Answer

Behaviorist psychologists such as Pavlov and Skinner have made significant contributions to our understanding of human behaviour through their research and theories.

Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning has been influential in explaining how associations are formed between stimuli and responses. Pavlov conducted experiments with dogs, where he paired a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (such as food), which naturally elicited a response (such as salivation). Over time, the dogs learned to associate the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response (salivation) even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov's research demonstrated the principles of stimulus-response associations and the process of learning through classical conditioning, which has been applied to various aspects of human behaviour, including phobias, addictions, and emotional responses.

B.F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning has also greatly contributed to our understanding of human behaviour. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement, which involves the use of rewards and punishments to strengthen or weaken certain behaviours. He conducted experiments using Skinner boxes, where animals, typically rats or pigeons, learned to perform specific actions (such as pressing a lever) to receive rewards (such as food). Skinner's research emphasised the role of consequences in shaping behaviour and highlighted the principles of reinforcement and punishment. His theories have been applied to various domains, including education, parenting, and behaviour modification therapies, to understand how reinforcement can influence behavior and promote desired outcomes.

Pavlov's research has been applied to various human behaviors, such as phobias and emotional responses. Pavlov's work has highlighted the significance of environmental factors in shaping behavior and has influenced therapeutic techniques like exposure therapy. However, one limitation of Pavlov's approach is its focus on automatic, reflexive responses, neglecting the complexities of human cognition and conscious processing. While classical conditioning can explain certain learned behaviors, it falls short in accounting for higher-order cognitive processes and the role of conscious decision-making.

Additionally, Skinner's research has been applied in educational settings, behavior modification programs, and parenting strategies. However, a limitation of Skinner's approach is its reliance on external influences and its neglect of internal mental processes. Human behavior is influenced by cognitive factors, such as thoughts, beliefs, and emotions, which play a crucial role in decision-making and motivation. Skinner's focus on external factors limits our understanding of the complexities of human behavior and the role of cognitive processes in shaping actions.

 

Read the item and then answer the question that follows.

Bradley has just started to play snooker and is keen to play well. He watches carefully when his partner takes a difficult shot then tries to copy the same shot. He thinks about how his partner was holding the snooker cue and whether he can do the same.

Social learning theorists refer to the role of mediational processes in learning.

Referring to Bradley’s experiences, explain the role of mediational processes in learning. (4 marks) 

Model Answer

Firstly, attention is a key mediational process. Bradley carefully watches his partner when taking difficult shots, focusing his attention on the specific actions and cues involved in executing the shot successfully. By directing his attention to the relevant details, Bradley increases his chances of effectively encoding and retaining the information for later use.

Secondly, motivation influences the learning process. Bradley's keenness to play well acts as a motivational factor. He is driven by a desire to improve his snooker skills, which enhances his engagement and persistence in observing and imitating his partner's shots. Motivation serves as a catalyst for learning and facilitates the acquisition and reproduction of observed behaviours.

Retention is another important mediational process. After observing his partner's shots, Bradley consciously retains the information in his memory. He mentally processes the details of how his partner holds the snooker cue and considers whether he can replicate the same technique. Retention enables Bradley to store and recall the observed behaviors when needed, allowing him to reproduce them during his own gameplay.

Lastly, reproduction involves translating the retained information into action. Bradley attempts to reproduce the same shots he observed, incorporating the cues and techniques he observed from his partner. By engaging in active practice and applying what he learned, Bradley increases the likelihood of successfully executing the shots himself.

 

Outline Pavlov’s research into classical conditioning and describe how classical conditioning might explain a child’s fear of school.

(Total 8 marks)

Model Answer

Pavlov's research into classical conditioning focused on understanding how associations between stimuli and responses are formed. His famous experiments with dogs involved pairing a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (such as food), which naturally elicited a response (such as salivation). Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus that could elicit a conditioned response (salivation) even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

In the context of a child's fear of school, classical conditioning can provide an explanation. Suppose a child has experienced a traumatic or negative event at school, such as being bullied or facing a distressing situation. In this scenario, the traumatic event acts as an unconditioned stimulus, eliciting fear (unconditioned response) in the child. The school environment, initially a neutral stimulus, becomes associated with the traumatic event and takes on the role of a conditioned stimulus.

As a result, the child starts to exhibit fear responses (conditioned response) in the presence of school-related cues or when entering the school environment. For instance, the child may experience increased heart rate, sweating, or feelings of anxiety upon seeing the school building, hearing the school bell, or interacting with classmates. This learned fear response is a result of the conditioned association between the previously neutral stimulus (school) and the negative experience.

Over time, the fear response can generalise, leading the child to feel anxious and fearful in various school-related situations, even if they are not directly linked to the initial traumatic event. For example, the child may experience fear during classroom activities, interactions with teachers or peers, or even when thinking about school.

 

A young woman says: “When I was 5 years old, I was at a party and a balloon burst with a loud bang in my face. Even after all these years, I cannot bear to go into a room where there are balloons. They terrify me!”

Use your knowledge of classical conditioning to explain why the young woman is terrified of balloons. ( 3 marks) 

The young woman's fear of balloons can be explained through classical conditioning. In this case, the bursting of the balloon with a loud bang acted as an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicited a fear response (unconditioned response, UR) in the young girl. The loud bang is an inherently aversive and startling stimulus, which can evoke fear in many individuals.

During the incident, the young girl was likely to have associated the loud bang with the presence of balloons, which served as the neutral stimulus (NS) at the time. Through the process of classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus (balloons) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) that acquired the ability to elicit the conditioned response (CR), which is fear.

As a result of the traumatic experience, the young girl formed an association between the loud bang (US) and the presence of balloons (CS). Over time, this association strengthened, and the fear response became conditioned to the sight or thought of balloons alone, without the need for the actual loud bang to occur. Thus, the conditioned response (fear) is triggered simply by the presence of balloons (CS), as the young woman has learned to associate them with the aversive experience of the balloon bursting (US).

This classical conditioning process explains why, even after many years, the young woman still experiences a strong fear response when encountering balloons. The initial traumatic event created an enduring association between the burst balloon and the fear response, resulting in a phobic response towards balloons that persists over time.

 

Describe a procedure that behaviourists have used to study operant conditioning. ( 3 marks) 

Model Answer

One procedure that behaviourists have used to study operant conditioning is through the use of a controlled environment, such as a laboratory setting with specialised equipment. One notable example is the use of the Skinner box, an apparatus designed by B.F. Skinner. The Skinner box typically consists of a small chamber with a lever or button that an animal can press, along with various sensors and mechanisms to deliver reinforcements or punishments.

In this procedure, researchers pair a specific stimulus and response with a consequence. For instance, in the case of a rat, the researcher may set up the Skinner box so that when the rat presses a lever, it receives a food pellet as a positive reinforcement. The repetition of this pairing, with the rat consistently receiving a food pellet each time it presses the lever, reinforces the behavior of lever pressing.

 

A psychology student made the following observation to his teacher.

‘The behaviourist approach has been presented to us as helpful in understanding human behaviour. However, most of the data have been obtained from research using animals.’

Briefly discuss the value of behaviourism in helping us to understand human behaviour. ( 5 marks) 

Model Answer

Behaviorism emphasises the study of observable behavior, which allows for systematic and objective analysis. By focusing on measurable responses, behaviorists can apply scientific methods to understand the relationships between environmental stimuli, behavioral responses, and the consequences that follow. This emphasis on objective measurement and experimental control provides a rigorous foundation for studying human behavior.

Secondly, behaviourism highlights the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior. Through experiments with animals and humans, behaviorists have demonstrated the powerful influence of consequences on behavior. By understanding the principles of operant conditioning, we can gain insights into how rewards and punishments shape behavior in various contexts, including educational, organisational, and therapeutic settings.

While it is crucial to consider other psychological perspectives and the complexity of human cognition, behaviorism provides a valuable foundation for understanding the basic mechanisms of behavior. By focusing on observable behavior, the influence of consequences, and the role of learning, behaviorism offers insights into human behavior that have practical applications and contribute to our understanding of complex psychological processes.

Explain one way in which social learning theory overlaps with one other approach in psychology. (2 marks) 

Model Answer

One way in which social learning theory overlaps with cognitive psychology is through the emphasis on the role of cognitive processes in learning and behavior. While social learning theory emphasises the importance of observational learning and modeling, it also acknowledges the cognitive processes that mediate this learning.

Cognitive psychology focuses on how individuals perceive, process, and interpret information, including social stimuli. It recognises that cognitive factors such as attention, memory, and problem-solving play a crucial role in learning and behavior. Similarly, social learning theory acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in learning, particularly in terms of attention and retention.

 

Mr Benson is a primary school teacher. He has noticed that some of the children in his class push to the front of the queue when it is time to leave the classroom.

Suggest how Mr Benson might use vicarious reinforcement to alter the behaviour of these children. Explain your answer with reference to social learning theory.( 3 marks) 

Mr. Benson can use vicarious reinforcement to alter the behaviour of the children who push to the front of the queue by implementing a peer modeling strategy. According to social learning theory, individuals learn through observing and imitating the behaviours of others, especially when they are reinforced for their actions.

To implement vicarious reinforcement, Mr. Benson can identify well-behaved and responsible students in the class who consistently wait patiently in the queue. He can then assign these students as role models for the children who push to the front. Mr. Benson can explain to the entire class that he will be observing and rewarding those who wait in line appropriately.

During each departure time, Mr. Benson can publicly praise and provide positive reinforcement to the students who are waiting patiently in the queue. This can include verbal praise, stickers, or other small rewards that the children value. By highlighting the positive behavior and reinforcing it, Mr. Benson can make waiting in line a desirable and rewarding action for the children.

Through the process of vicarious reinforcement, the children who observe their peers being rewarded for waiting in line will be more likely to imitate that behavior. They will recognise that waiting in line leads to positive outcomes and will be motivated to engage in the same behavior. Over time, with consistent reinforcement, the children who previously pushed to the front of the queue may learn and adopt the desired behavior of waiting patiently in line, creating a positive change in their behaviour.

 

Studying for Issues and Debates (Gender + Culture)? Check out these model answers of all the questions that have been asked on this area.

 

TAKE A LOOK AT THE REST OF THE ISSUES AND DEBATES MODEL ANSWERS FOR PAPER 3 HERE. 

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